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What is the role of environmental exposure in health risks? ​

Abstract ​

Environmental exposure has emerged as a pivotal area of research in public health, reflecting the significant impact of various environmental factors on health outcomes. This review explores the intricate relationship between environmental exposures and health risks, highlighting both direct and indirect pathways that contribute to disease incidence and progression. Key findings reveal that environmental exposures can be categorized into physical, chemical, biological, socioeconomic, and lifestyle factors, each playing a role in shaping health risks. Notably, marginalized populations experience compounded disadvantages due to their proximity to pollution sources and limited access to healthcare, leading to increased vulnerability to environmental hazards. Mechanisms linking environmental exposures to health risks include biological dysregulation, proteomic changes, and psychosocial stressors. Case studies illustrate the direct health outcomes associated with specific exposures, such as air pollution and respiratory diseases, as well as water contamination and gastrointestinal illnesses. The review concludes with an assessment of current policies aimed at mitigating these risks and proposes recommendations for future research, emphasizing the need for comprehensive exposure assessments and proactive public health strategies. By synthesizing current research findings, this report aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the dynamics between environmental exposures and health risks, serving as a valuable resource for researchers, policymakers, and health professionals.

Outline ​

This report will discuss the following questions.

  • 1 Introduction
  • 2 Overview of Environmental Exposures
    • 2.1 Types of Environmental Exposures
    • 2.2 Sources of Environmental Pollution
  • 3 Mechanisms Linking Environmental Exposures to Health Risks
    • 3.1 Biological Mechanisms
    • 3.2 Psychological and Social Factors
  • 4 Vulnerable Populations and Health Disparities
    • 4.1 Impact on Children and Elderly
    • 4.2 Socioeconomic Factors and Exposure Risks
  • 5 Case Studies of Environmental Exposures and Health Outcomes
    • 5.1 Air Quality and Respiratory Diseases
    • 5.2 Water Contamination and Gastrointestinal Illnesses
  • 6 Policy Implications and Future Directions
    • 6.1 Current Policies and Their Effectiveness
    • 6.2 Recommendations for Future Research and Action
  • 7 Conclusion

1 Introduction ​

Environmental exposure has emerged as a critical area of research in public health, reflecting the growing recognition of the significant impact that various environmental factors have on health outcomes. As populations around the globe face increasing challenges from air and water pollution, hazardous chemicals, and biological agents, understanding the intricate relationship between these exposures and health risks has become paramount. Environmental exposures are not merely a backdrop to health issues; they actively shape the incidence and progression of diseases, thereby influencing public health on a broad scale [1].

The significance of studying environmental exposure lies in its multifaceted nature, encompassing both direct and indirect pathways that contribute to health risks. Direct exposures, such as inhalation of polluted air or consumption of contaminated water, can lead to immediate health effects, while indirect exposures may arise from socio-economic factors that determine vulnerability and access to clean resources [2][3]. For instance, marginalized populations often experience compounded disadvantages due to their proximity to pollution sources and limited access to healthcare [1]. The urgent need for effective public health interventions and policies that can mitigate these risks is underscored by the rising prevalence of environmentally-related diseases, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of how environmental factors interact with biological systems [4].

Current research highlights the complexity of environmental exposures, which include a wide array of pollutants and their interactions with biological, psychological, and social factors. For example, studies have shown that exposure to particulate matter is linked to cardiovascular diseases through mechanisms involving oxidative stress and inflammation [5]. Furthermore, the interplay between environmental chemicals and the human microbiome is an emerging area of interest, suggesting that these interactions could significantly influence disease risk and outcomes [6]. This complexity emphasizes the need for an integrative approach to exposure assessment that considers both individual susceptibility and broader socio-economic contexts [7].

This review is organized into several key sections to systematically explore the role of environmental exposure in health risks. First, we provide an overview of environmental exposures, detailing the various types and sources of pollution that contribute to health risks. This section will also discuss the importance of comprehensive exposure assessment methodologies, which are crucial for understanding the full scope of environmental impacts on health [8]. Next, we delve into the mechanisms linking environmental exposures to health risks, examining both biological mechanisms and the psychological and social factors that mediate these relationships [9].

Following this, we address the issue of vulnerable populations and health disparities, focusing on how children and the elderly are disproportionately affected by environmental hazards. This section will highlight the role of socioeconomic factors in exacerbating exposure risks [10]. We will then present case studies that illustrate the direct health outcomes associated with specific environmental exposures, such as air quality and respiratory diseases, as well as water contamination and gastrointestinal illnesses [11].

The review will conclude with a discussion of policy implications and future directions for research. We will assess current policies aimed at mitigating environmental health risks and propose recommendations for future action, emphasizing the need for a proactive and informed approach to public health that integrates findings from environmental science [12]. By synthesizing current research findings, this report aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the intricate dynamics between environmental exposures and health risks, serving as a valuable resource for researchers, policymakers, and health professionals committed to addressing the pressing health challenges posed by environmental factors.

2 Overview of Environmental Exposures ​

2.1 Types of Environmental Exposures ​

Environmental exposure plays a critical role in determining health risks, as it encompasses a wide range of physical, chemical, and biological factors that can adversely affect human health. The understanding of environmental exposures has evolved significantly, revealing that they can have both direct and indirect effects on various health outcomes.

Physical environmental factors include exposure to toxins, weather extremes, degraded air and water quality, high levels of noise, and limited accessibility to green areas. These factors are often interrelated and can exacerbate health risks, particularly in marginalized populations where socioeconomic status may further compound disadvantages. For instance, the cumulative impact of multiple environmental exposures can lead to additive and synergistic effects on health outcomes, as demonstrated by the Multi-Exposure Environmental Index (MEEI), which quantifies these exposures at the U.S. Census Tract level [1].

In terms of specific types of environmental exposures, they can be categorized as follows:

  1. Chemical Exposures: This includes exposure to hazardous substances such as heavy metals, pesticides, and pollutants. For example, air pollution has been identified as a leading health risk factor, contributing to various chronic diseases, including cardiovascular and respiratory conditions [13].

  2. Biological Exposures: These involve exposure to allergens and pathogens, which can trigger allergic diseases and respiratory conditions. The home environment is a primary site for exposure to allergens, emphasizing the importance of understanding how home systems interact with environmental factors [10].

  3. Socioeconomic and Behavioral Factors: Environmental exposures are often intertwined with social determinants of health. For instance, early life exposures to environmental hazards are associated with an increased risk of non-communicable diseases later in life, highlighting the long-term impacts of such exposures [14].

  4. Occupational Exposures: Certain jobs expose individuals to harmful substances or stressful environments that can lead to adverse health effects. Occupational exposures, particularly in settings with poor safety regulations, have been linked to increased risks of diseases such as asthma and other respiratory conditions [15].

  5. Lifestyle and Nutritional Factors: Environmental exposures also include lifestyle choices influenced by the surrounding environment, such as diet and physical activity. These factors can interact with genetic predispositions to influence health outcomes [16].

The complexity of environmental exposures necessitates a comprehensive approach to understanding their impact on health. For example, the concept of the "exposome" has been proposed to encapsulate the totality of environmental exposures throughout an individual's life, emphasizing the need for integrative studies that consider multiple exposures and their interactions [17].

In summary, environmental exposures encompass a diverse array of factors that significantly influence health risks. Understanding these exposures is crucial for developing effective public health strategies aimed at reducing health disparities and improving health outcomes across populations. Further research is essential to elucidate the mechanisms by which these exposures affect health and to guide interventions that mitigate their risks [18].

2.2 Sources of Environmental Pollution ​

Environmental exposure plays a critical role in determining health risks, with a wide range of factors contributing to adverse health outcomes. These exposures encompass various elements of the physical environment, including air and water quality, noise pollution, and accessibility to green spaces. The cumulative effects of these exposures can lead to significant health risks, particularly for marginalized populations who may face compounded disadvantages due to socioeconomic status.

One of the primary sources of environmental pollution is air quality, where pollutants from industrial activities, vehicle emissions, and other sources contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. For instance, studies have shown that air pollution is a leading health risk factor, affecting nearly all aspects of health, including increased risks for chronic diseases such as hypertension, heart failure, and stroke [13]. Moreover, specific pollutants, such as particulate matter, have been linked to a range of health issues, emphasizing the need for comprehensive air quality management [16].

Water pollution also poses significant health risks, with contaminants from agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, and inadequate waste management systems affecting the quality of drinking water. Exposure to these pollutants can lead to various health problems, including gastrointestinal diseases and long-term chronic conditions [15]. The interaction between water quality and human health underscores the importance of maintaining clean water sources as a fundamental aspect of public health.

Noise pollution, often overlooked, has been associated with various health outcomes, including increased stress levels, sleep disturbances, and cardiovascular issues. Chronic exposure to high noise levels can lead to long-term health effects, indicating that environmental factors extend beyond chemical exposures [18].

The role of the built environment, including urban design and infrastructure, is also crucial in shaping health outcomes. Limited access to green spaces and recreational areas can lead to sedentary lifestyles, contributing to obesity and related health conditions [1]. Urban planning that incorporates green spaces can mitigate some of these risks by promoting physical activity and mental well-being.

Furthermore, the concept of the exposome has emerged as a framework for understanding the totality of environmental exposures throughout an individual's life. This includes not only chemical exposures but also social and behavioral factors that interact with environmental conditions to influence health [19]. For example, early life exposures to environmental toxins have been linked to increased risks of chronic diseases later in life, emphasizing the importance of addressing environmental factors from a developmental perspective [14].

In summary, environmental exposure is a multifaceted contributor to health risks, encompassing various pollutants and conditions that affect individuals throughout their lives. Addressing these exposures requires a comprehensive approach that includes improving air and water quality, enhancing urban design, and understanding the complex interactions between environmental factors and human health. This holistic perspective is essential for effective public health interventions and policy-making aimed at reducing health disparities and improving overall population health.

3 Mechanisms Linking Environmental Exposures to Health Risks ​

3.1 Biological Mechanisms ​

Environmental exposures play a critical role in influencing health risks through various biological mechanisms. The interplay between environmental factors and human health is complex, involving direct and indirect pathways that can lead to the development of chronic diseases.

One significant mechanism is the dysregulation of apoptosis, which is the process of programmed cell death. Environmental toxicants can interfere with intrinsic apoptosis pathways, potentially leading to excessive or insufficient cell death. This dysregulation is linked to various diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. Recent studies have highlighted how both legacy and emerging environmental exposures can target these pathways, increasing the vulnerability of healthy tissues, particularly in children, and influencing immune responses, tissue repair, and tumorigenesis (Johnson & Sarosiek, 2024) [20].

Another critical mechanism involves the proteomic signatures associated with environmental exposures. A study analyzed over 6,500 circulating proteins in relation to 29 environmental exposures, revealing that these signatures were associated with pathways relevant to cardiovascular disease, such as inflammation, DNA damage, and fibrosis. Notably, a proteomic signature reflecting social vulnerability was found to correlate with cardiovascular disease and mortality outcomes, emphasizing the broader impact of environmental and social factors on health (Perry et al., 2024) [21].

The concept of the exposome, which encompasses all environmental exposures an individual encounters throughout their lifetime, further elucidates the relationship between environmental factors and health. The exposome includes both endogenous and exogenous chemicals that can affect gene expression through epigenetic modifications. For instance, environmental pollutants can lead to changes in DNA methylation and histone modification, thereby influencing the risk of diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular conditions (Wu et al., 2023) [22].

Additionally, environmental exposures can elicit physiological stress responses that contribute to disease pathogenesis. Chronic exposure to pollutants and other environmental stressors can trigger systemic inflammation and immune dysregulation, which are implicated in various health conditions, including diabetes and cognitive decline (Esterhuizen et al., 2023) [23].

In summary, the mechanisms linking environmental exposures to health risks are multifaceted, involving dysregulation of cell death pathways, proteomic changes, epigenetic modifications, and physiological stress responses. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for developing effective strategies to mitigate the health impacts of environmental exposures and improve public health outcomes.

3.2 Psychological and Social Factors ​

Environmental exposure plays a significant role in determining health risks through various mechanisms, particularly in the context of psychological and social factors. The interplay between environmental exposures and health outcomes is complex, often involving a combination of physical, chemical, and psychosocial stressors that can exacerbate health disparities, especially among marginalized populations.

Research indicates that adverse environmental exposures, such as toxins, air pollution, and limited access to green spaces, are correlated with socioeconomic status and can compound disadvantages in vulnerable groups. For instance, exposure to environmental toxins is linked to diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmunity, with mechanisms involving the dysregulation of apoptosis pathways. This dysregulation may increase the vulnerability of healthy tissues to environmental exposures, particularly in children, and can guide immune responses, tissue repair, and tumorigenesis (Johnson and Sarosiek, 2024) [20].

Moreover, the cumulative effects of multiple environmental exposures are crucial for understanding health risks. A composite measure, such as the Multi-Exposure Environmental Index (MEEI), quantifies various environmental factors that can have additive or synergistic effects on health outcomes. This cumulative approach is essential for informed policy-making and intervention strategies aimed at mitigating health risks associated with environmental determinants (Peluso et al., 2024) [1].

Psychological factors also play a pivotal role in how environmental exposures impact health. Chronic exposure to environmental stressors can lead to physiological responses, including systemic inflammation and immune system dysregulation, which are implicated in various chronic diseases. For example, early life stress combined with air pollution has been shown to affect neuroimmunologic pathways, potentially leading to chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes (Olvera Alvarez et al., 2018) [24]. The psychological environment, including stress and social support, can influence health outcomes by modulating immune responses and hormonal balances, thus exacerbating the effects of environmental toxins (Friedman and Lawrence, 2002) [25].

Furthermore, the concept of the exposome highlights the totality of environmental exposures throughout an individual's life, emphasizing the need to consider both the physical environment and psychosocial factors in health assessments. The exposome has been shown to correlate strongly with cardiovascular health, where factors such as air pollution, psychosocial stress, and lifestyle behaviors collectively contribute to the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases (Motairek et al., 2023) [16].

In conclusion, the mechanisms linking environmental exposures to health risks are multifaceted, involving a combination of direct toxicological effects and indirect influences through psychological and social factors. Addressing these interconnected elements is essential for developing effective public health strategies and interventions aimed at reducing health disparities and improving overall health outcomes.

4 Vulnerable Populations and Health Disparities ​

4.1 Impact on Children and Elderly ​

Environmental exposure plays a critical role in determining health risks, particularly among vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly. These groups exhibit heightened susceptibility to environmental hazards due to various factors, including developmental physiology in children and age-related physiological decline in the elderly.

Children are particularly vulnerable to environmental exposures because their physiological systems are still developing, making them more susceptible to the adverse effects of pollutants and toxins. For instance, children breathe more air, consume more food and water relative to their body weight, and engage in hand-to-mouth behaviors that increase their exposure to environmental contaminants. This is compounded by their developmental stages, where critical growth processes can be disrupted by toxic exposures. Studies have indicated that children are disproportionately affected by pollutants found in air, water, and food, leading to various health issues including respiratory diseases, cardiovascular conditions, and neurodevelopmental disorders[26][27][28].

Moreover, socioeconomic factors significantly influence the extent of exposure and vulnerability. Children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to live in environments with higher levels of pollution and fewer resources to mitigate these risks. For example, a systematic review highlighted that children with socioeconomic disadvantages face increased risks of respiratory diseases associated with factors such as biomass fuel use, tobacco smoke, and air pollutants including particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide[26]. These findings underscore the intersection of environmental and social determinants of health, where low-income communities and racial minorities often bear a disproportionate burden of environmental health risks[29].

In the elderly population, the effects of environmental exposures can also be profound. As individuals age, their physiological resilience diminishes, making them more susceptible to the health impacts of environmental toxins. For example, the American Heart Association has noted that environmental toxicants can contribute to cardiovascular diseases, with early-life exposures being particularly relevant for chronic conditions that manifest later in life[27]. The cumulative effect of environmental exposures over time can lead to an increased risk of various health outcomes, including chronic non-respiratory diseases such as obesity and diabetes, which are also influenced by environmental factors[14].

In summary, environmental exposures significantly influence health risks, especially among vulnerable populations like children and the elderly. These groups face unique challenges due to their physiological characteristics and social circumstances, which necessitate targeted public health interventions to mitigate the burden of environmental health risks and improve health outcomes. Addressing these disparities requires a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between environmental factors and socioeconomic status, as well as the implementation of policies that prioritize the health of these vulnerable populations[28][30].

4.2 Socioeconomic Factors and Exposure Risks ​

Environmental exposure plays a significant role in determining health risks, particularly among vulnerable populations who are often disproportionately affected by adverse environmental conditions. The physical environment, which includes factors such as exposure to toxins, weather extremes, degraded air and water quality, high levels of noise, and limited access to green spaces, is critical in shaping health outcomes. These adverse environmental exposures are frequently correlated with socioeconomic status, compounding disadvantages for marginalized groups [1].

Research has shown that economically disadvantaged communities and racial minorities are more likely to experience both higher levels of environmental exposure and greater susceptibility to its effects. For instance, William Suk et al. (2016) emphasized that the rapid societal and climate changes disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, exacerbating existing health disparities [31]. This is supported by findings that indicate lower-income communities are systematically more exposed to environmental pollution, which in turn leads to worse health outcomes [29].

Environmental exposures contribute to a range of health issues, including cardiovascular diseases (CVD), which are significantly influenced by factors such as ambient air pollution and toxic metals. Cosselman et al. (2015) noted that these environmental agents can initiate or worsen pathophysiological processes associated with CVD, such as blood pressure regulation and vascular function [32]. Furthermore, the American Heart Association highlighted that children are particularly sensitive to environmental toxicants, which can lead to long-term health issues including congenital heart disease and other cardiovascular conditions [27].

The cumulative impacts of environmental hazards and social stressors are critical to understanding health disparities. Morello-Frosch et al. (2011) discussed how racial and ethnic minority groups, along with low-income communities, face multiple environmental hazards that compound their health risks [33]. The interaction between social determinants of health and environmental factors creates a complex landscape of vulnerability, where psychosocial stress may further exacerbate the adverse health effects of environmental exposures [34].

In summary, the interplay between environmental exposure and socioeconomic factors creates a heightened vulnerability among marginalized populations, leading to significant health disparities. Understanding these dynamics is essential for effective policy-making and intervention strategies aimed at reducing health risks associated with environmental exposures.

5 Case Studies of Environmental Exposures and Health Outcomes ​

5.1 Air Quality and Respiratory Diseases ​

Environmental exposure plays a significant role in determining health risks, particularly concerning respiratory diseases. Numerous studies highlight the impact of various environmental factors on respiratory health, especially in vulnerable populations such as children and individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

One key study by Cortes-Ramirez et al. (2021) emphasizes that children are particularly susceptible to environmental exposures that contribute to respiratory diseases due to their developing physiology. The systematic review identified eleven studies that revealed a range of environmental risk factors associated with respiratory diseases in children with socioeconomic disadvantages. These factors included biomass fuel use, tobacco smoking, and exposure to pollutants like particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. The findings indicated that household air pollution was closely associated with respiratory infections, while asthma was linked to both indoor and outdoor air pollution. Vulnerable populations, such as Indigenous children and those living with adults of low socioeconomic status, showed increased risks, underscoring the need for targeted public health interventions to mitigate these risks [26].

Additionally, Peluso et al. (2024) discussed the cumulative effects of environmental exposures using a Multi-Exposure Environmental Index (MEEI) at the US Census Tract level. This approach highlights how various environmental factors—such as toxins, poor air quality, and limited access to green spaces—interact and compound health risks, particularly in marginalized communities. The study suggests that understanding these cumulative exposures is crucial for informed policy-making and public health interventions aimed at reducing health disparities [1].

Savouré et al. (2023) further elaborate on the importance of the exposome approach, which examines all non-genetic factors affecting health. Their review of recent publications indicated that specific environmental exposures, including air pollution and harmful chemicals like phthalates, have significant implications for respiratory health. They advocate for a multi-interventional approach to risk reduction that addresses early-life factors and promotes healthy lifestyles throughout adulthood [18].

Moreover, Santos et al. (2021) provided an overview of the detrimental effects of air pollution on respiratory health, detailing both acute and chronic consequences. They reported that exposure to various air pollutants leads to increased symptoms, emergency room visits, and hospitalizations for respiratory conditions, as well as long-term effects such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The review emphasizes the need for healthcare providers to recognize environmental air pollution as a critical risk factor and to implement preventive measures for susceptible individuals [35].

In conclusion, the evidence strongly indicates that environmental exposure, particularly related to air quality, is a crucial determinant of respiratory health risks. Vulnerable populations are disproportionately affected, necessitating targeted public health strategies to mitigate these risks and improve health outcomes.

5.2 Water Contamination and Gastrointestinal Illnesses ​

Environmental exposure plays a significant role in health risks, particularly concerning water contamination and its association with gastrointestinal illnesses. A systematic review and meta-analysis conducted by Russo et al. (2020) evaluated health risks associated with exposure to ambient surface waters during recreational activities. The study found that different recreational activities resulted in varying levels of contact with ambient water containing waterborne pathogens, which is critical in assessing illness risk. For instance, swimming and sports-related contact activities showed significant elevations in the risk of gastrointestinal illness, with pooled risk estimates indicating a relative risk of 2.19 for swimming and 2.69 for sports-related contact[36].

Moreover, Arnold et al. (2016) highlighted that recreational water exposure accounted for a substantial percentage of gastrointestinal illness episodes, with water exposure contributing to 21% of diarrhea cases among young children. The study emphasized that children aged 0 to 10 years exhibited a higher burden of illness, showcasing the heightened vulnerability of this demographic to waterborne pathogens[37].

In a broader context, Ji et al. (2023) reviewed the impact of microplastics in aquatic environments, linking prolonged exposure to these pollutants with health risks, particularly regarding inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Their findings indicated that microplastics can induce intestinal barrier dysfunction and imbalance in the intestinal microbiome, which are critical factors in the pathogenesis of IBD[38].

The findings from these studies underscore the complex relationship between environmental exposures, particularly through contaminated water, and gastrointestinal health outcomes. The evidence suggests that exposure to pathogens and pollutants in recreational waters can significantly elevate the risk of gastrointestinal diseases, necessitating public health interventions aimed at improving water quality and reducing exposure risks.

6 Policy Implications and Future Directions ​

6.1 Current Policies and Their Effectiveness ​

Environmental exposure plays a critical role in determining health risks, as it encompasses a wide array of factors that can adversely affect human health. The relationship between environmental exposures and health outcomes is complex and multifaceted, influenced by various determinants including socioeconomic status and geographic location.

Research indicates that exposure to toxins, weather extremes, degraded air and water quality, high levels of noise, and limited accessibility to green areas can significantly undermine health. Adverse environmental exposures are often interrelated, compounding disadvantages particularly in marginalized populations, thus exacerbating health inequities. For instance, a study highlights that the cumulative approach to measuring environmental factors through the Multi-Exposure Environmental Index (MEEI) provides a comprehensive understanding of the additive and synergistic effects these exposures can have on health outcomes [1].

Despite the recognized importance of environmental determinants in shaping health risks, current policies often lack the necessary frameworks to effectively address these complexities. Traditional chemical risk assessments have been criticized for their inadequacies in predicting and preventing disease in human populations, particularly as epidemiological studies reveal adverse health effects at exposure levels deemed safe based on animal studies. This discordance suggests a pressing need for a reframing of risk assessment practices to align more closely with public health goals [3].

To improve the effectiveness of policies aimed at mitigating health risks associated with environmental exposures, several strategies can be implemented. First, enhancing the methodologies for exposure assessment is crucial. For example, incorporating biological exposure assessments into epidemiological studies can provide more accurate insights into the internal exposure to pollutants, thereby facilitating better risk management decisions [39]. Furthermore, the development of innovative tools and approaches in exposure science is essential to refine the understanding of the relationship between environmental factors and health [40].

Current policies should also emphasize the integration of environmental health considerations into broader public health strategies. This can be achieved by leveraging existing data on environmental exposures and health outcomes to inform policy decisions and interventions. A literature review indicated that public health projects often rely on pre-existing data due to budget constraints, highlighting the necessity for improved methodologies that can assess the association between environmental pollutants and health outcomes [41].

In conclusion, the role of environmental exposure in health risks is profound and necessitates a multifaceted approach in policy-making. Current policies must evolve to incorporate comprehensive exposure assessments, innovative methodologies, and a focus on reducing environmental hazards, particularly for vulnerable populations. This will not only enhance public health outcomes but also contribute to the overall effectiveness of health interventions and policies.

6.2 Recommendations for Future Research and Action ​

Environmental exposure plays a significant role in determining health risks, as outlined in several studies. It is established that the physical environment, including factors such as exposure to toxins, weather extremes, degraded air and water quality, and high levels of noise, can adversely affect human health. Moreover, these adverse environmental exposures often correlate with socioeconomic status, which can compound disadvantages in marginalized populations (Peluso et al. 2024) [1].

The cumulative effects of multiple environmental exposures can result in additive and synergistic impacts on health outcomes. This understanding has led to the development of tools such as the Multi-Exposure Environmental Index (MEEI), which quantifies various environmental exposures at the US Census Tract level, thereby facilitating informed policy-making and interventions aimed at mitigating health risks (Peluso et al. 2024) [1].

Despite the acknowledged importance of environmental exposures, there remain substantial gaps in research, particularly regarding the comprehensive understanding of how these exposures interact and contribute to health risks. For instance, a review indicated that while health outcomes related to climate change and air pollution are frequently studied, there is a notable lack of research on dietary risks and how multiple environmental risks accumulate and interact (Weber et al. 2023) [19]. This gap highlights the need for future studies to incorporate a broader range of determinants of health to capture the full effects of environmental changes.

In terms of policy implications, it is crucial to develop a more integrative approach that encompasses various environmental determinants. This includes not only traditional environmental hazards but also emerging issues such as climate change and engineered nanomaterials, which have implications for public health (Birnbaum & Jung 2011) [42]. The complexities of environmental health underscore the necessity for a multidisciplinary approach in research and policy-making, addressing the interactions between environmental factors, socioeconomic status, and health outcomes.

Recommendations for future research and action include the following:

  1. Comprehensive Exposure Assessment: Future studies should employ advanced methodologies to assess environmental exposures, including the use of modern tools such as geographic information systems (GIS) and bio-monitoring to capture the complexity of exposure patterns (Lillini et al. 2021) [41].

  2. Longitudinal and Multi-Determinant Studies: Research should focus on longitudinal studies that examine the effects of environmental exposures over time and across different life stages. Incorporating socio-demographic and health-system changes into models will enhance the understanding of the full effects of environmental changes (Weber et al. 2023) [19].

  3. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Collaboration among environmental scientists, epidemiologists, public health officials, and policymakers is essential to create effective interventions and policies that address the multifaceted nature of environmental health risks (Olden & Klein 1995) [43].

  4. Public Health Education and Advocacy: Increasing public awareness about the health impacts of environmental exposures can drive community action and policy change. Education initiatives should focus on vulnerable populations who are disproportionately affected by environmental hazards (Breton et al. 2021) [44].

By addressing these recommendations, future research can contribute to a more nuanced understanding of environmental exposures and their health implications, ultimately leading to more effective public health strategies and policies.

7 Conclusion ​

This review underscores the profound impact of environmental exposures on health risks, particularly among vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly. Key findings highlight that environmental factors, including air and water quality, socioeconomic status, and biological mechanisms, play critical roles in shaping health outcomes. The cumulative effects of multiple exposures often lead to exacerbated health disparities, necessitating targeted public health interventions. Current policies frequently fall short in addressing the complexities of environmental health risks, emphasizing the need for a more integrative approach in research and policy-making. Future research should focus on comprehensive exposure assessments, longitudinal studies, interdisciplinary collaboration, and public health education to better understand and mitigate the health impacts of environmental exposures. By addressing these areas, we can develop effective strategies that enhance public health outcomes and reduce health disparities associated with environmental factors.

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