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What are the mechanisms of childhood obesity? ​

Abstract ​

Childhood obesity has emerged as a pressing public health crisis, with its prevalence escalating dramatically over recent decades. This condition is characterized by excessive body fat accumulation in children, leading to significant health risks, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and psychological issues. The multifactorial nature of childhood obesity encompasses genetic, environmental, dietary, physical, and psychological influences, which collectively affect energy balance and body weight. Genetic factors contribute substantially to obesity risk, with heritability estimates indicating that genetics account for 30% to 50% of obesity variance. Genetic predispositions interact with environmental factors, such as socioeconomic status and urbanization, which influence dietary habits and physical activity levels. The increasing availability of high-calorie foods, aggressive marketing targeting children, and declining physical activity due to sedentary lifestyles further exacerbate the issue. Psychological aspects, including emotional eating and stress, are critical in understanding children's eating behaviors. This review synthesizes current research on these diverse contributors to childhood obesity, emphasizing the need for targeted prevention and intervention strategies. By addressing the interplay of these factors, healthcare professionals and policymakers can develop effective approaches to mitigate the long-term implications of childhood obesity, ensuring a healthier future for the next generation.

Outline ​

This report will discuss the following questions.

  • 1 Introduction
  • 2 Genetic Factors
    • 2.1 Hereditary Influences
    • 2.2 Genetic Disorders Associated with Obesity
  • 3 Environmental Influences
    • 3.1 Socioeconomic Status
    • 3.2 Urbanization and Built Environment
  • 4 Dietary Habits
    • 4.1 Consumption of High-Calorie Foods
    • 4.2 Impact of Marketing and Advertising
  • 5 Physical Activity Levels
    • 5.1 Sedentary Lifestyle Trends
    • 5.2 Role of School and Community Programs
  • 6 Psychological Factors
    • 6.1 Emotional Eating
    • 6.2 Stress and Its Effects on Eating Behavior
  • 7 Summary

1 Introduction ​

Childhood obesity has rapidly escalated into a significant public health crisis worldwide, with its prevalence more than tripling in the past few decades. This alarming trend is characterized by excessive body fat accumulation in children, which poses serious health risks and is associated with a range of physical and psychological complications, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and low self-esteem [1]. The complexity of childhood obesity is underscored by its multifactorial nature, encompassing genetic, environmental, dietary, physical, and psychological factors that interact in various ways to influence energy balance and body weight [2][3].

Understanding the mechanisms underlying childhood obesity is crucial for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies. The significance of this research lies not only in addressing the immediate health concerns of affected children but also in mitigating the long-term implications for public health systems and society at large. As childhood obesity often persists into adulthood, it increases the risk of chronic diseases and healthcare costs [4]. Moreover, the societal burden of childhood obesity is compounded by its association with stigmatization and mental health issues, necessitating a comprehensive approach to tackle this multifaceted epidemic [5].

Current research has illuminated various contributors to childhood obesity, yet gaps remain in our understanding of the precise mechanisms at play. Genetic predispositions, for instance, play a critical role, with evidence indicating that heritable factors significantly influence an individual's susceptibility to obesity [6]. However, these genetic factors do not act in isolation; they interact with environmental influences, such as socioeconomic status, urbanization, and dietary habits, which can exacerbate or mitigate the risk of obesity [3][7]. The increasing availability of high-calorie foods, coupled with aggressive marketing strategies targeting children, has also been identified as a key driver of unhealthy eating behaviors [2]. Furthermore, physical activity levels have declined significantly due to lifestyle changes, leading to a rise in sedentary behaviors among children [3].

In addition to these factors, psychological aspects such as stress and emotional eating are critical to understanding the complexities of childhood obesity. Emerging research highlights the impact of emotional factors on eating behaviors, suggesting that stress and negative emotions can lead to overeating and unhealthy food choices [8]. Thus, a comprehensive understanding of childhood obesity must incorporate not only biological and environmental perspectives but also psychological dimensions.

This review will be organized into several sections that explore these diverse mechanisms contributing to childhood obesity. The first section will address genetic factors, including hereditary influences and genetic disorders associated with obesity. Following this, we will delve into environmental influences, examining the roles of socioeconomic status and the urban built environment. The third section will focus on dietary habits, discussing the consumption of high-calorie foods and the impact of marketing and advertising. The fourth section will consider physical activity levels, emphasizing the trends in sedentary lifestyles and the role of school and community programs in promoting physical activity. Finally, we will explore psychological factors, including emotional eating and the effects of stress on eating behavior.

By analyzing these multifaceted contributors to childhood obesity, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview that will inform healthcare professionals, policymakers, and educators. Understanding the interplay between these various factors is essential for developing targeted interventions and fostering a collaborative approach to address this growing public health challenge.

2 Genetic Factors ​

2.1 Hereditary Influences ​

Childhood obesity is a multifaceted condition influenced by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors. Hereditary influences play a significant role in the development of obesity in children, with numerous studies highlighting the genetic predisposition that contributes to this growing public health issue.

Genetic factors have been shown to account for a substantial portion of the variance in body weight and obesity phenotypes among individuals. The heritability of obesity is estimated to be between 30% to 50%, indicating that genetic predisposition significantly influences the risk of developing obesity in childhood [9]. This genetic basis is further supported by studies that have identified various genes associated with obesity, including those involved in the regulation of appetite and energy metabolism [10].

Specifically, the biological mechanisms that underlie genetic susceptibility to obesity include the regulation of appetite and energy balance. Variants in genes related to the leptin signaling pathway, which is crucial for energy homeostasis, have been particularly implicated in obesity [11]. Additionally, genetic factors can affect the body's response to dietary intake, with some individuals showing a higher propensity for overeating in response to environmental cues, which may lead to excessive weight gain [10].

Moreover, the influence of epigenetic mechanisms cannot be overlooked. Epigenetic changes, which modify gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence, have been recognized as critical mediators in the development of obesity. These modifications can be influenced by environmental factors and may interact with genetic predispositions, further complicating the etiology of childhood obesity [7]. For instance, maternal conditions such as obesity and metabolic disorders during pregnancy can lead to epigenetic alterations in the offspring, predisposing them to obesity later in life [4].

The interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental factors is also significant. For example, children with a genetic susceptibility to obesity may be more vulnerable to the effects of an "obesogenic" environment characterized by easy access to high-calorie foods and low levels of physical activity [10]. This highlights the importance of considering both genetic and environmental influences when addressing the childhood obesity epidemic.

In summary, hereditary influences on childhood obesity encompass a range of genetic factors that contribute to the regulation of appetite and energy balance, as well as epigenetic modifications that interact with environmental exposures. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for developing targeted prevention and intervention strategies to combat childhood obesity effectively.

2.2 Genetic Disorders Associated with Obesity ​

Childhood obesity is a multifaceted condition influenced by various genetic and environmental factors. Genetic predisposition plays a significant role in the development of obesity, particularly through genetic disorders associated with obesity. The heritability of obesity phenotypes has been estimated to range from 30% to 50%, indicating a substantial genetic component in susceptibility to this condition (Pérusse and Bouchard 1999).

Recent studies have identified a variety of genetic factors that contribute to childhood obesity. For instance, certain genetic mutations can lead to monogenic forms of obesity, where a single gene defect is responsible for the condition. These include well-characterized syndromic forms such as Prader-Willi syndrome and Bardet-Biedl syndrome, which present with distinct phenotypes and are often accompanied by other health complications (Choquet and Meyre 2010).

Additionally, there are polygenic forms of obesity where multiple genes interact with environmental factors to influence body weight. This complexity is compounded by epigenetic mechanisms that can alter gene expression without changing the underlying DNA sequence. Epigenetic modifications, such as DNA methylation and histone modification, have been implicated in the regulation of appetite and fat storage, potentially leading to increased adiposity in genetically predisposed individuals (Alfano et al. 2022; Sivakumar et al. 2024).

Moreover, environmental factors, such as diet and physical activity, can interact with genetic predispositions to exacerbate the risk of obesity. For example, the obesogenic environment characterized by high-calorie food availability and low physical activity levels can trigger the expression of obesity-related genes, leading to an increased risk of childhood obesity (Maffeis 1999; Butte 2009).

In conclusion, the mechanisms of childhood obesity related to genetic factors are complex and involve a combination of monogenic and polygenic influences, epigenetic modifications, and interactions with environmental factors. Continued research into these genetic and epigenetic mechanisms is essential for developing targeted prevention and intervention strategies to combat childhood obesity.

3 Environmental Influences ​

3.1 Socioeconomic Status ​

Childhood obesity is influenced by a multitude of factors, among which socioeconomic status (SES) plays a critical role. The mechanisms through which SES impacts childhood obesity can be understood through various psychosocial, environmental, and behavioral pathways.

Lower socioeconomic status is associated with a higher risk of childhood obesity, as indicated by research that identifies several psychosocial factors contributing to this phenomenon. Children from lower SES backgrounds may experience adverse life events, family strain, and dysfunction, which can lead to increased stress and emotional turmoil. These conditions often create a context where unhealthy eating behaviors, such as the consumption of calorie-dense junk food, become a form of self-medication to alleviate psychological discomfort (Hemmingsson 2018) [12].

Moreover, socioeconomic adversity often correlates with limited access to healthy food options and safe environments for physical activity. Families in lower SES brackets may live in areas with fewer grocery stores that offer nutritious foods, leading to a reliance on cheaper, processed foods that are typically high in sugar and fats (Salois 2012) [13]. This lack of access is compounded by environmental factors, such as the built environment, which influences food choices and opportunities for physical activity, thereby affecting the prevalence of obesity among children (Salois 2012) [13].

The family environment, significantly shaped by socioeconomic conditions, is another key mediator in the relationship between SES and childhood obesity. The dynamics within families, including parental obesity and dietary habits, influence children's eating behaviors and physical activity levels. Parental stress and mental health issues, which are more prevalent in low-income families, can further exacerbate these challenges, creating a cycle of poor health outcomes (Gundersen et al. 2011) [14].

Additionally, the broader social context in which children are raised also plays a crucial role. Social policies that affect family income and access to resources can impact childhood obesity rates. For instance, social safety net programs that alleviate financial stress can have the added benefit of reducing childhood obesity by enabling families to make healthier food choices and engage in physical activities (Gundersen et al. 2011) [14].

In summary, the mechanisms of childhood obesity related to socioeconomic status involve a complex interplay of psychosocial stressors, environmental limitations, family dynamics, and broader social policies. Addressing these factors through comprehensive, multidisciplinary approaches is essential for effective obesity prevention strategies targeting children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

3.2 Urbanization and Built Environment ​

Childhood obesity is a multifaceted public health issue influenced by various environmental factors, particularly those associated with urbanization and the built environment. The existing literature identifies several key mechanisms through which the built environment impacts childhood obesity.

One significant factor is the neighborhood food environment. Research indicates that the availability and accessibility of different types of food, particularly fast food outlets, can significantly affect children's body weight. A study by Zhou et al. (2021) highlights that increased exposure to Western-style fast food is associated with higher child BMI and increased risk of overweight and obesity, while access to Chinese-style fast food may have a protective effect against obesity in certain contexts. This duality emphasizes the importance of food environment characteristics in shaping dietary habits and obesity outcomes among children[15].

Moreover, the built environment's physical characteristics, such as neighborhood walkability and the availability of parks and recreational spaces, are crucial. Malacarne et al. (2022) found strong associations between traffic-related air pollution and built environment features that promote walking, such as street intersection density and access to parks, with childhood obesity outcomes. These environmental characteristics not only influence physical activity levels but also contribute to exposure to pollutants, which have been linked to obesity through mechanisms like oxidative stress and epigenetic modifications[16].

The relationship between the built environment and obesity is further complicated by socio-economic factors. Salois (2012) examined how urban-rural disparities affect the prevalence of obesity in low-income preschool children, suggesting that the built environment's impact varies significantly across different settings[13]. Similarly, Dietz and Gortmaker (1984) reported that environmental factors such as population density and regional characteristics significantly influenced obesity prevalence among children, with variations observed based on urban or rural settings[17].

Furthermore, the natural environment also plays a role in childhood obesity. Jia et al. (2021) conducted a systematic review and found that factors like temperature and altitude can affect physical activity levels in children, which are crucial for maintaining healthy weight. Children living in areas with extreme weather conditions may engage in less outdoor activity, thereby increasing the risk of obesity[18].

Overall, the mechanisms linking urbanization and the built environment to childhood obesity are complex and involve a combination of dietary influences, physical activity levels, socio-economic factors, and exposure to environmental pollutants. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive urban planning and public health strategies that promote healthy food environments and active lifestyles for children, particularly in urban settings.

4 Dietary Habits ​

4.1 Consumption of High-Calorie Foods ​

Childhood obesity is a multifaceted issue influenced by various mechanisms, with dietary habits, particularly the consumption of high-calorie foods, playing a significant role. The evidence indicates that dietary intake is intricately linked to the development of obesity in children. Specifically, the types of foods consumed, their nutritional composition, and the overall patterns of food intake can significantly affect energy balance and fat accumulation.

High-calorie foods, especially those that are energy-dense, have been shown to contribute to an increased risk of obesity. For instance, foods high in sugar and fat are particularly problematic. A review highlighted that certain nutritional components, such as sugar-sweetened beverages, are positively correlated with obesity development, while others, like dietary fiber and calcium, have an inverse relationship with obesity [19]. This suggests that the presence of high-calorie foods in children's diets can lead to excessive energy intake, thus promoting weight gain.

Furthermore, dietary patterns, including meal frequency, snacking behaviors, and portion sizes, are critical in understanding obesity risk. It has been noted that the relationship between energy intake and body fatness is complex and not fully understood. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have not consistently demonstrated clear links between dietary factors and obesity, indicating that the impact of dietary habits on childhood obesity may vary based on individual behaviors and environmental contexts [20].

The interplay between appetite regulation and dietary habits also sheds light on the mechanisms of childhood obesity. Research indicates that children exhibit varying appetitive traits, such as responsiveness to internal satiety signals and external food cues. These traits can influence eating behaviors, leading to increased consumption of high-calorie foods [21]. For instance, children with low responsiveness to satiety may consume more food than necessary, contributing to an energy surplus and, consequently, obesity.

Moreover, early life influences, including in utero exposure to maternal obesity and dietary habits, can program appetite and energy regulation mechanisms, potentially leading to a predisposition to obesity later in life [4]. The "Developmental Origins of Health and Disease" (DOHaD) paradigm emphasizes how environmental exposures during critical developmental periods can have lasting effects on metabolic health, further implicating dietary habits in the etiology of childhood obesity [22].

In summary, the mechanisms underlying childhood obesity related to dietary habits encompass the consumption of high-calorie foods, the influence of early life dietary exposures, and the regulation of appetite. These factors contribute to an imbalance in energy intake and expenditure, ultimately leading to increased adiposity in children. Addressing these dietary habits through targeted interventions is crucial for preventing and managing childhood obesity.

4.2 Impact of Marketing and Advertising ​

The mechanisms of childhood obesity are multifaceted, particularly in relation to dietary habits influenced by marketing and advertising. The increasing prevalence of childhood obesity has been significantly correlated with the obesogenic environment created by extensive food marketing directed at children. This environment includes aggressive advertising strategies that promote energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods, which can lead to unhealthy dietary behaviors and ultimately contribute to obesity.

Food advertising, especially on television and online platforms, employs visually appealing techniques and emotionally engaging themes to capture children's attention. Research indicates that children exposed to food advertisements exhibit significant increases in their energy intake, particularly from high-fat and high-sugar snacks. A study conducted by Halford et al. (2008) demonstrated that children who viewed food advertisements consumed more energy-dense snacks compared to those who were exposed to non-food advertisements, with the most pronounced effects observed in obese children (Halford et al. 2008). This heightened responsiveness to food promotion among overweight and obese children suggests that their food choices and intake are more significantly influenced by marketing strategies than those of their normal-weight peers.

Moreover, Boyland (2025) emphasizes that the adverse effects of food advertising on children's food behaviors meet established criteria for causality regarding obesity. Despite the implementation of some restrictive policies aimed at reducing children's exposure to food advertising, comprehensive regulations are still lacking globally. These policies have shown effectiveness in decreasing the persuasive power of food advertisements and the purchasing behaviors associated with unhealthy foods. However, the challenge remains to address the pervasive nature of digital food marketing, which has become increasingly prominent in children's lives (Boyland 2025).

The food industry's influence extends beyond mere advertising; it creates an obesogenic environment through various channels, including schools, retailers, and mass media. Sonntag et al. (2015) identified six key environments where the food industry potentially impacts obesity-related dietary behaviors in children, highlighting the role of promotional campaigns and media in shaping children's food preferences and consumption patterns. The findings suggest that children are subjected to constant commercial influences that may lead to increased consumption of unhealthy foods and beverages, further exacerbating the obesity epidemic (Sonntag et al. 2015).

In conclusion, the mechanisms of childhood obesity related to dietary habits are significantly influenced by marketing and advertising strategies. These strategies not only affect children's food preferences but also contribute to increased energy intake, particularly among those already at risk of obesity. Addressing these influences through effective public policy and comprehensive regulations is crucial for mitigating the impact of food marketing on childhood obesity.

5 Physical Activity Levels ​

5.1 Sedentary Lifestyle Trends ​

Childhood obesity is a multifactorial condition influenced by various mechanisms, particularly related to physical activity levels and sedentary lifestyle trends. Sedentary behaviors, such as excessive screen time, have been shown to have a significant association with obesity in children and adolescents. For instance, a review by Rey-López et al. (2008) highlighted that sedentary lifestyle patterns, including playing digital games and watching television, are linked to obesity. Notably, the study indicated that not all forms of sedentary behavior carry the same risk; for example, watching television was found to be more closely associated with obesity than playing video games or using computers, provided these activities do not excessively replace physical activity [23].

Further supporting this, a study by Xi et al. (2011) investigated the interaction between sedentary behavior, physical activity, and genetic predisposition to obesity in children. The results revealed that children who engaged in sedentary behavior for two or more hours per day, particularly those with high-risk genetic alleles, exhibited a higher risk of obesity. This suggests that a sedentary lifestyle can exacerbate genetic predispositions, emphasizing the need for interventions that promote increased physical activity to mitigate these risks [24].

The origins of obesity-related behaviors can also be traced to early life influences. For example, Carnell and Wardle (2008) discussed how appetitive traits, which include low responsiveness to internal satiety signals and high responsiveness to external food cues, may contribute to individual differences in obesity risk. These traits can lead to increased consumption of energy-dense foods, particularly in children exposed to obesogenic environments [21].

In addition, Ochoa et al. (2007) identified lifestyle factors contributing to obesity risk, including sedentary behaviors like watching television and dietary patterns such as the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages. Their findings suggested that leisure time physical activity serves as a protective factor against obesity, while sedentary behaviors and family history of obesity are associated with higher risks [25].

The interplay between physical activity and sedentary behaviors is crucial. Hills et al. (2007) emphasized that an inactive lifestyle contributes to a positive energy balance, thereby promoting obesity in children. They pointed out that the current environment fosters reduced physical activity levels compared to previous generations, which is a critical factor in the rising rates of childhood obesity [26].

Overall, the mechanisms underlying childhood obesity are complex and interrelated. Sedentary lifestyles significantly contribute to obesity risk, particularly when coupled with low levels of physical activity. Interventions aimed at reducing sedentary behavior and promoting active lifestyles are essential in addressing this public health concern.

5.2 Role of School and Community Programs ​

Childhood obesity is a multifactorial condition influenced by various biological, environmental, and social mechanisms. The interplay of these factors significantly contributes to the rising prevalence of obesity among children.

One of the critical mechanisms involves physical activity levels. Epidemiological evidence consistently supports the notion that increased physical activity can improve obesity-mediated inflammation and oxidative stress status, which are primary underlying mechanisms in obesity-related diseases (Estébanez et al. 2022) [27]. However, a decline in physical activity is a major contributor to the increasing rates of obesity. Factors such as excessive screen time, reduced opportunities for active play, and the overall sedentary lifestyle prevalent in many communities exacerbate this issue. School and community programs play a pivotal role in promoting physical activity among children. Effective interventions that target schools can lead to significant improvements in physical activity levels, yet the outcomes of such programs can be mixed. School-based initiatives should incorporate comprehensive health and nutrition education, physical education, and an environment that supports active lifestyles (Nga et al. 2019) [28].

Moreover, the psychosocial environment surrounding children, including family dynamics, peer influences, and community support systems, also impacts their physical activity levels and dietary habits. Research indicates that lower socioeconomic status, minority group membership, and exposure to adverse life events can lead to a higher risk of childhood obesity, primarily through mechanisms such as poor dietary choices and decreased physical activity (Stein et al. 2014) [29]. Thus, community programs that engage families and provide support for healthy lifestyle changes can be effective in addressing these social determinants of health.

Furthermore, the role of school programs is essential in shaping children's attitudes towards physical activity and nutrition. Schools can serve as a natural setting for influencing children's behaviors, making them an ideal venue for implementing interventions aimed at reducing obesity. However, it is important to recognize that while school education is a critical component, it is not a standalone solution. A comprehensive approach involving parents, community stakeholders, and policymakers is necessary to create an environment conducive to healthy behaviors (Campbell 2016) [30].

In conclusion, the mechanisms of childhood obesity are complex and multifaceted, encompassing biological, environmental, and social factors. Addressing this epidemic requires a concerted effort to enhance physical activity levels through effective school and community programs while also considering the broader psychosocial influences that affect children's health behaviors. Implementing multidisciplinary prevention strategies that involve families, schools, and communities is crucial for combating the rising prevalence of childhood obesity and fostering a healthier future generation.

6 Psychological Factors ​

6.1 Emotional Eating ​

Childhood obesity is a complex issue influenced by a multitude of factors, particularly psychological mechanisms that contribute to emotional eating. Emotional eating is defined as the tendency to consume food in response to negative emotions, such as stress, sadness, or anxiety, rather than in response to physiological hunger. This behavior is implicated in the development and maintenance of obesity in children.

Research indicates that emotional eating can be mediated by various psychological factors. For instance, exposure to childhood trauma has been shown to correlate with emotional eating, where emotion dysregulation and depression serve as significant mediators. A study involving a primarily African American, low socioeconomic status population found that higher levels of emotional eating were associated with body mass index (BMI), income, and childhood trauma exposure, particularly emotional abuse. The relationship between childhood trauma and emotional eating was fully mediated by depression symptoms and emotion dysregulation, suggesting that children exposed to trauma may develop maladaptive coping strategies, including emotional eating, as a means to manage their distress (Michopoulos et al. 2015) [31].

Moreover, psychological stress has been linked to unhealthy dietary patterns in children. A study examining the interrelationship between stress, emotional eating, and dietary choices found that stressful events and negative emotions were positively associated with emotional eating behaviors, leading to increased consumption of unhealthy foods (Michels et al. 2012) [32]. This highlights the role of stress as a catalyst for emotional eating, which can further contribute to obesity.

Additionally, emotional eating is often related to specific behavioral problems in children. For example, a study that identified subtypes among youngsters with obesity revealed that those exhibiting high levels of emotional eating were more likely to have emotional regulation difficulties and depressive symptoms. This "Emotional Eating" cluster displayed a vulnerable profile, indicating that emotional problems can exacerbate unhealthy eating behaviors (Vervoort et al. 2022) [33].

The family environment also plays a critical role in shaping emotional eating behaviors. Parenting styles and feeding practices significantly influence children's emotional eating tendencies. Emotional feeding, where parents offer food as a way to soothe their child's negative emotions, has been identified as a strong predictor of emotional eating in children (Braden et al. 2014) [34]. Such practices can perpetuate a cycle where children learn to associate food with emotional comfort, reinforcing emotional eating patterns.

In summary, the mechanisms underlying childhood obesity related to emotional eating are multifaceted. They include the effects of childhood trauma, psychological stress, emotional dysregulation, and maladaptive parenting practices. Addressing these psychological factors through targeted interventions may help mitigate emotional eating behaviors and, consequently, reduce the risk of obesity in children. The integration of psychological support alongside nutritional guidance is essential for effective prevention and treatment strategies.

6.2 Stress and Its Effects on Eating Behavior ​

Childhood obesity is a multifaceted public health issue that can be significantly influenced by psychological factors, particularly stress and its effects on eating behavior. Chronic stress is a crucial contributor to the development of eating disorders and obesity among children and adolescents. During periods of stress, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a notable increase in the incidence of overweight and obesity in this demographic. Factors such as unhealthy food choices, unbalanced diets, and sedentary lifestyles, exacerbated by stress, play a significant role in this trend [35].

Chronic stress impacts the hormonal balance in the body, specifically by reducing levels of the satiety hormone leptin while elevating levels of the appetite-stimulating hormone ghrelin. This hormonal disruption fosters increased hunger and uncontrolled snacking behaviors, which can lead to weight gain [35]. Additionally, the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the sympathetic nervous system in response to stress can impair the secretion of noradrenaline and cortisol, further contributing to the risk of obesity [35].

Moreover, the psychosocial stressors faced by children, particularly in low-income families, are prevalent and can lead to adverse health outcomes, including obesity. Stressors such as familial dysfunction, insecurity, and emotional turmoil create an environment conducive to unhealthy eating behaviors, including the consumption of calorie-dense junk foods as a form of self-medication to alleviate psychological distress [[pmid:29704182],[pmid:21054757]]. The interplay between stress and eating behavior is evident, as children experiencing stress may engage in maladaptive coping strategies, including emotional eating, which exacerbates the risk of obesity [36].

Furthermore, psychological factors such as low self-esteem, negative body image, and emotional distress can lead to a vicious cycle where obesity contributes to further psychological issues, including anxiety and depression [37]. This interrelationship suggests that addressing psychological well-being is essential in obesity prevention and intervention strategies.

In summary, the mechanisms linking stress to childhood obesity involve hormonal changes that increase appetite, the impact of psychosocial stressors that promote unhealthy eating behaviors, and the reciprocal relationship between obesity and psychological distress. Effective interventions must consider these complex interactions to mitigate the rising prevalence of obesity in children.

7 Conclusion ​

The investigation into the mechanisms of childhood obesity reveals a complex interplay of genetic, environmental, dietary, physical, and psychological factors. Genetic predispositions, including hereditary influences and genetic disorders, significantly contribute to obesity risk, while environmental factors such as socioeconomic status and urbanization shape children's access to healthy foods and opportunities for physical activity. Dietary habits, particularly the consumption of high-calorie foods and the impact of marketing, further exacerbate the obesity epidemic. Additionally, declining physical activity levels and increasing sedentary behaviors highlight the need for comprehensive interventions. Psychological factors, including emotional eating and stress, play a crucial role in influencing eating behaviors and overall health outcomes. Current research underscores the necessity of a multidisciplinary approach that encompasses these diverse mechanisms to effectively combat childhood obesity. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies that explore the interactions among these factors, develop targeted interventions that address the specific needs of at-risk populations, and evaluate the effectiveness of community-based programs in promoting healthier lifestyles. A collaborative effort among healthcare professionals, educators, and policymakers is essential to foster a supportive environment that encourages healthy behaviors and mitigates the growing prevalence of childhood obesity.

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