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This report is written by MaltSci based on the latest literature and research findings

How does climate change affect human health? ​

Abstract ​

Climate change has emerged as a critical global challenge with profound implications for human health. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) highlights that rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events are direct consequences of human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation. These environmental changes exacerbate health disparities, posing unique challenges for vulnerable populations, including the elderly, children, and those with pre-existing health conditions. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes climate change as a significant threat to global health, linking it to increased morbidity and mortality from various health conditions such as respiratory diseases, heat-related illnesses, and vector-borne diseases. This review systematically explores the direct health impacts of climate change, including heat-related illnesses, respiratory diseases exacerbated by air pollution, and injuries from extreme weather events. It also examines indirect health impacts, such as the spread of vector-borne diseases, food and water security issues, and mental health implications. Vulnerable populations are disproportionately affected, necessitating comprehensive strategies that integrate health and climate policies. The review concludes with policy implications and recommendations, emphasizing the importance of community resilience and global cooperation in addressing these challenges. As the global community grapples with the realities of climate change, the need for informed, integrated health policies becomes paramount to safeguard the health of current and future generations.

Outline ​

This report will discuss the following questions.

  • 1 Introduction
  • 2 Direct Health Impacts of Climate Change
    • 2.1 Heat-Related Illnesses
    • 2.2 Respiratory Diseases from Air Pollution
    • 2.3 Injuries and Fatalities from Extreme Weather Events
  • 3 Indirect Health Impacts of Climate Change
    • 3.1 Spread of Vector-Borne Diseases
    • 3.2 Food and Water Security Issues
    • 3.3 Mental Health Implications
  • 4 Vulnerable Populations
    • 4.1 Impact on the Elderly
    • 4.2 Effects on Children
    • 4.3 Health Disparities in Low-Income Communities
  • 5 Policy Implications and Recommendations
    • 5.1 Integrated Climate and Health Policies
    • 5.2 Community Resilience Strategies
    • 5.3 Global Cooperation and Funding
  • 6 Conclusion

1 Introduction ​

Climate change has emerged as one of the most significant global challenges of the 21st century, profoundly affecting both the environment and human health. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports indicate that rising global temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events are direct consequences of human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation [1]. These environmental changes have far-reaching implications, not only for ecosystems but also for the health and well-being of populations worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes climate change as a critical threat to global health, linking it to increased morbidity and mortality from a range of health conditions, including respiratory diseases, heat-related illnesses, and vector-borne diseases [2].

The significance of understanding the relationship between climate change and health cannot be overstated. Climate change exacerbates existing health disparities and poses unique challenges for vulnerable populations, including the elderly, children, and those with pre-existing health conditions [3]. Moreover, the interplay between climate change and socio-economic factors further complicates public health responses. The need for comprehensive strategies that integrate health and climate policies is urgent, as the impacts of climate change are projected to intensify in the coming decades, leading to greater health risks and increased demand for healthcare services [4].

Current research highlights a myriad of direct and indirect health impacts stemming from climate change. Direct effects include heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems exacerbated by air pollution, and injuries or fatalities resulting from extreme weather events such as hurricanes and floods [5]. Indirectly, climate change influences the spread of infectious diseases, disrupts food and water security, and contributes to mental health issues related to climate anxiety [6]. For instance, the changing distribution of vectors due to climate shifts can lead to increased incidence of diseases such as malaria and dengue fever [7]. Furthermore, the psychological impacts of climate change, particularly on marginalized groups, have garnered attention, emphasizing the need for a holistic approach to health that considers mental well-being alongside physical health [8].

The organization of this review will systematically explore these dimensions of climate change and health. In the first section, we will examine the direct health impacts of climate change, focusing on heat-related illnesses, respiratory diseases linked to air pollution, and injuries from extreme weather events. Following this, we will delve into the indirect health impacts, including the spread of vector-borne diseases, issues related to food and water security, and the mental health implications of climate change. The subsequent section will address the vulnerabilities of specific populations, particularly the elderly, children, and low-income communities, who are disproportionately affected by climate-related health risks. Lastly, we will discuss policy implications and recommendations for integrating climate and health strategies, emphasizing the importance of community resilience and global cooperation in mitigating these challenges [9].

Through this comprehensive overview, we aim to illuminate the intricate connections between climate change and human health, advocating for urgent action to address these pressing issues. As the global community grapples with the realities of a changing climate, the need for informed, integrated health policies becomes paramount to safeguard the health of current and future generations [7].

2 Direct Health Impacts of Climate Change ​

2.1 Heat-Related Illnesses ​

Climate change significantly affects human health, particularly through the exacerbation of heat-related illnesses. As a direct consequence of climate change, there is an intensification of hot weather and extreme heat events, which are epidemiologically associated with a greater risk of heat-related illnesses, adverse health outcomes, increased hospital admissions, and mortality. The physiological responses of the human body to heat exposure, known as heat strain, play a crucial role in these health risks. The magnitude of heat strain experienced, as well as the extent required to trigger adverse health outcomes, can be influenced by personal characteristics and the adoption of protective behaviors[10].

Heat-related illnesses include conditions such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke, as well as adverse cardiovascular events and acute kidney injury or failure. These pathophysiological mechanisms underpinning the association between heat exposure and increased risk of heat-related health issues are significant, particularly in the context of rising global temperatures[10].

The increase in global mean temperature, estimated at 0.8°C-0.9°C over the last century, has been linked to more frequent and severe heat waves. Such extreme heat exposure can lead to dehydration and volume loss, exacerbating pre-existing chronic diseases and resulting in acute mortality from conditions like heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Furthermore, recurrent heat exposure combined with physical exertion and inadequate hydration has been shown to lead to chronic kidney disease (CKD), distinct from that caused by traditional risk factors such as diabetes and hypertension. Epidemics of CKD, consistent with heat stress nephropathy, are now occurring globally, particularly in rural communities where occupational heat exposure is prevalent[11].

Moreover, a study assessing heat-related mortality attributable to human-induced climate change found that 37.0% of warm-season heat-related deaths across various countries could be linked to climate change. This indicates that increased mortality from heat exposure is evident on every continent, emphasizing the urgent need for comprehensive mitigation and adaptation strategies to protect public health against the impacts of climate change[12].

In summary, the direct health impacts of climate change on heat-related illnesses are profound, with rising temperatures leading to increased incidences of heat exhaustion, heatstroke, and other related health conditions. This highlights the necessity for public health interventions and strategies aimed at reducing the health risks associated with extreme heat and adapting to the ongoing challenges posed by climate change.

2.2 Respiratory Diseases from Air Pollution ​

Climate change significantly affects human health, particularly through its direct and indirect impacts on respiratory diseases exacerbated by air pollution. The interaction between climate change and air pollution presents substantial global health challenges, especially for vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions.

Increased greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO₂), contribute to global warming, leading to more frequent and severe weather events, which in turn amplify air pollution levels. For instance, higher temperatures can lead to increased concentrations of ground-level ozone and particulate matter, both of which are detrimental to respiratory health. Studies indicate that climate change-induced factors such as heatwaves, wildfires, and droughts not only worsen air quality but also prolong allergy seasons and enhance the allergenicity of certain plants, thereby increasing the incidence of allergic respiratory diseases like asthma and allergic rhinitis (Bernstein & Rice, 2013; Bayram et al., 2023) [13][14].

The effects of air pollution on respiratory health are well-documented. Exposure to pollutants can induce inflammation, create oxidative stress, and impair immune function within the lungs. For example, particulate matter from industrial emissions and vehicle exhaust can exacerbate chronic respiratory diseases and increase mortality rates associated with these conditions. The World Allergy Organization emphasizes that the rising prevalence of allergic airway diseases, such as asthma and rhinitis, can be attributed to the complex interplay of air pollution and climate change, alongside other environmental factors (D'Amato et al., 2015) [15].

Furthermore, climate change leads to changes in the distribution and intensity of allergens, such as pollen and mold spores, which can provoke respiratory conditions. For instance, longer pollen seasons and higher pollen concentrations are expected as a result of climate change, which could aggravate allergic airway diseases (Beggs et al., 2023) [16]. Additionally, extreme weather events can lead to poor indoor air quality due to mold growth, further complicating respiratory health outcomes (Jovanovic Andersen et al., 2023) [17].

The public health implications of these changes are profound. There is a pressing need for comprehensive public health measures aimed at mitigating the effects of climate change and air pollution on respiratory health. These measures may include reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing air quality through regulatory and technological innovations, and implementing policies that improve healthcare access and social support for affected populations. The urgency for continuous research and establishment of effective policies to address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change on respiratory health cannot be overstated (Tran et al., 2023) [18].

In conclusion, the intersection of climate change and air pollution poses significant threats to respiratory health, necessitating proactive and coordinated efforts to protect vulnerable populations and improve public health outcomes in the face of these environmental challenges.

2.3 Injuries and Fatalities from Extreme Weather Events ​

Climate change significantly impacts human health, particularly through injuries and fatalities associated with extreme weather events. Extreme weather phenomena, including heavy precipitation, severe storms, heat waves, and flooding, are increasingly frequent and intense due to climate variability. These events lead to hundreds of deaths and injuries annually in the United States alone, as highlighted by Greenough et al. (2001), who noted that the direct health impacts most commonly associated with natural disasters include injury and death. The alteration in climate patterns is projected to increase the frequency of such extreme weather events, thereby raising the risk of floods and other hazardous conditions, which are directly linked to increased morbidity and mortality rates [19].

The implications of climate change extend beyond immediate physical injuries. Reichelt et al. (2025) emphasize that immediate exposure to climate-related hazards results in direct health impacts, while indirect effects manifest through ecosystem disruptions and socioeconomic changes. For instance, the psychological toll of experiencing extreme weather events can lead to mental health disorders, as the traumatic experiences associated with such events increase the risk of conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [20].

Ebi et al. (2021) further elucidate the complexity of health outcomes related to extreme weather and climate change, indicating that while adverse health impacts have declined over the past decades, the increasing vulnerability of populations and the frequency of extreme events could reverse this trend. They assert that the health risks associated with these events could be mitigated through the development of climate-resilient health systems that focus on improved risk reduction, preparation, response, and recovery strategies [21].

In summary, the health impacts of climate change, particularly from extreme weather events, encompass a spectrum of direct injuries and fatalities as well as broader implications for mental health and community resilience. Effective public health planning and robust climate adaptation strategies are crucial in addressing these challenges and minimizing the health risks associated with climate variability and extreme weather phenomena.

3 Indirect Health Impacts of Climate Change ​

3.1 Spread of Vector-Borne Diseases ​

Climate change significantly impacts human health through various mechanisms, with one of the most critical indirect effects being the spread of vector-borne diseases (VBDs). VBDs, which include diseases transmitted by haematophagous arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, and sandflies, pose a substantial burden on global public health, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions [22].

The relationship between climate change and VBDs is complex and multifaceted. Climate variables such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity directly influence the biology and ecology of the vectors, thereby affecting their reproduction, survival, and geographic distribution [22]. For instance, warmer temperatures can expand the habitats suitable for vectors, leading to the emergence of diseases in previously unaffected areas. The nonlinear relationship between local climate conditions and VBD transmission indicates that both extreme heat and cold can impact disease dynamics, often in unpredictable ways [23].

Evidence suggests that climate change is linked to the geographical distribution and transmission patterns of various VBDs, including malaria, dengue, and leishmaniasis [24]. Specifically, climatic extremes, such as heat waves and heavy rainfall, have been shown to correlate with outbreaks of these diseases. For example, changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can create favorable conditions for mosquito breeding, thus increasing the risk of diseases like malaria and dengue [6]. Additionally, the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon has been associated with variations in disease transmission, illustrating the importance of regional climate phenomena in influencing VBD dynamics [23].

Moreover, the interaction between climatic and non-climatic factors, such as land use changes and human mobility, further complicates the spread of VBDs. As human populations move and alter their environments, they can inadvertently create conditions conducive to vector proliferation and disease transmission [23]. This interaction is particularly concerning in regions where public health systems may be ill-prepared to respond to emerging health threats posed by climate change [24].

The consequences of climate change on human health are not uniform; they vary significantly based on local contexts, including the existing health infrastructure and socio-economic conditions. Vulnerable populations, such as those in low-income regions or areas with limited healthcare access, are disproportionately affected by the increasing incidence of VBDs [25]. The overall impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases underscores the need for comprehensive public health strategies that integrate climate considerations into disease prevention and control efforts [26].

In summary, climate change affects human health through the complex dynamics of vector-borne diseases by altering ecological conditions that influence vector populations and disease transmission patterns. The multifactorial nature of these interactions necessitates ongoing research and adaptive public health measures to mitigate the risks associated with climate-induced changes in VBD dynamics.

3.2 Food and Water Security Issues ​

Climate change significantly affects human health through various indirect pathways, particularly concerning food and water security. The implications of these changes are multifaceted and can exacerbate existing health issues, leading to a range of adverse outcomes.

One of the primary ways climate change impacts food security is through extreme weather events and changing climatic conditions, which disrupt agricultural productivity. For instance, anthropogenic climate change is increasing the frequency, duration, and intensity of extreme weather events, which have substantial impacts on food production systems. Projections indicate that climate change, along with land conversion and reduced water availability, could lead to a substantial decrease in food production, particularly in vulnerable regions. Such reductions in food availability threaten population health by increasing food insecurity and malnutrition, which can lead to long-term health consequences, including increased susceptibility to infectious diseases and chronic health conditions (Tong et al. 2016; Hadley et al. 2023) [27][28].

Furthermore, climate change affects the quality of food available. Altered conditions for food production can result in the emergence of new pathogens and changes in the nutritional content of food. For example, rising temperatures and increased CO2 levels can reduce the nutrient density of staple crops, impacting dietary quality, particularly in low-income countries where populations are already at risk of undernutrition (Macdiarmid & Whybrow 2019) [29]. In addition, climate change can exacerbate food safety issues by increasing the prevalence of foodborne pathogens due to more frequent extreme weather conditions such as flooding and heat waves, which can compromise food safety (Miraglia et al. 2009) [30].

Water security is also critically impacted by climate change, as changes in rainfall patterns and increased incidences of droughts and floods can affect water availability and quality. This has direct implications for human health, as access to clean water is essential for safe food production and consumption. Poor water quality can lead to waterborne diseases, which pose significant health risks, particularly in communities already facing vulnerabilities (Nag 2023; Levy & Patz 2015) [31][32].

In addition to these direct impacts on food and water security, climate change can also exacerbate mental health issues and stress, particularly among populations facing food insecurity. The uncertainty and challenges associated with climate-induced food shortages can lead to increased anxiety and stress-related disorders, compounding the overall health burden on affected populations (Fanzo et al. 2025) [33].

The intersection of climate change, food security, and water access underscores the necessity for integrated approaches to health and environmental policies. Addressing these issues requires not only immediate action to mitigate climate change but also long-term strategies to enhance resilience in food systems and water management practices, particularly for the most vulnerable populations (Zambrano & González-Salazar 2025) [5].

In conclusion, the indirect health impacts of climate change on food and water security are profound and complex, necessitating a coordinated response to safeguard public health in the face of ongoing environmental changes.

3.3 Mental Health Implications ​

Climate change is increasingly recognized as a significant threat to human health, particularly in its indirect impacts on mental health. The effects of climate change can be classified into direct and indirect pathways, both of which have profound implications for mental well-being.

Direct impacts of climate change on mental health are primarily associated with acute weather events, such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires. These events can lead to immediate psychological consequences, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, and substance abuse disorders. For instance, traumatic experiences resulting from extreme weather events significantly increase the risk of affective and anxiety disorders, particularly PTSD (Walinski et al. 2023). Furthermore, chronic stressors associated with climate change, such as prolonged droughts and food insecurity, can also serve as major risk factors for mental health issues, exacerbating conditions like depression and anxiety (Niedzwiedz et al. 2025).

Indirect effects of climate change are multifaceted and arise from its impact on socioeconomic, political, and environmental determinants of health. These include economic losses, forced migration, competition over scarce resources, and collective violence, all of which can lead to psychological distress and increased mental health issues. Vulnerable populations, including children, adolescents, and those with pre-existing mental health conditions, are particularly at risk. The awareness of climate change and its existential implications can also generate significant anxiety and emotional distress, even in individuals who do not experience direct effects (Ramadan & Ataallah 2021; Bourque & Willox 2014).

The implications for mental health policy are substantial. There is a pressing need for mental health professionals to recognize the psychological impacts of climate change and to develop coping strategies for affected communities. This includes enhancing community resilience and providing support to those experiencing mental health crises related to climate events. The integration of mental health considerations into climate change policies is essential to address these emerging challenges effectively (Clemens et al. 2022; Ma et al. 2022).

Overall, as climate change continues to progress, it is expected that the incidence and prevalence of mental health disorders will rise, necessitating urgent action and research to mitigate these effects and support vulnerable populations (Hayes et al. 2018; Clayton 2021).

4 Vulnerable Populations ​

4.1 Impact on the Elderly ​

Climate change poses significant threats to human health, particularly affecting vulnerable populations such as the elderly. The impacts are multifaceted and arise from various environmental hazards associated with climate change, including increased temperatures, extreme weather events, air pollution, and other climate-mediated disasters.

Older adults are particularly susceptible to the adverse health effects of climate change due to their unique social, economic, and physiological vulnerabilities. Research indicates that the elderly experience heightened risks of cardiovascular and respiratory morbidity and mortality, primarily driven by factors such as heat waves and poor air quality. For instance, a scoping review highlighted that heat and air pollution were the most detrimental factors impacting the health of older individuals, leading to increased morbidity and mortality rates related to cardiovascular and respiratory conditions[34].

Moreover, climate change exacerbates existing health disparities, disproportionately affecting older adults from low socioeconomic backgrounds or ethnic minority groups. These populations often have pre-existing health conditions, which can be aggravated by climate-related stressors, thereby increasing their risk of hospitalization and mortality[35].

The review conducted by Chang et al. (2022) emphasized that the intensification of air pollution, wildfires, and extreme weather events contributes to an increase in cardiovascular risk factors among older adults. The compounding effects of these environmental changes can lead to severe health outcomes, including heart attacks and strokes, particularly among those already living with cardiovascular diseases[35].

In developing countries, the situation is further exacerbated, as these regions are often less equipped to handle the health impacts of climate change. A study focusing on aging health in developing nations found that older individuals are at an elevated risk of adverse health outcomes due to climate change, with public health systems struggling to cope with the increased demand for care resulting from climate-related health issues[36].

In conclusion, climate change significantly impacts the health of the elderly through various mechanisms, including heightened exposure to environmental hazards, increased morbidity and mortality rates from chronic diseases, and exacerbation of health disparities. Addressing these challenges requires a collaborative approach among healthcare providers, policymakers, and communities to implement effective mitigation and adaptation strategies aimed at protecting the health of older adults in the face of ongoing climate change[2][3].

4.2 Effects on Children ​

Climate change is increasingly recognized as a significant threat to human health, particularly impacting vulnerable populations such as children. The projected impacts of climate change on children's health are multifaceted, involving direct and indirect pathways that exacerbate existing health disparities and introduce new health risks.

Research indicates that climate change is responsible for over 150,000 deaths worldwide as of the year 2000, with 88% of this burden falling on children. The documented health effects on children include altered patterns of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue, increased incidence of diarrheal and respiratory diseases, and heightened morbidity and mortality due to extreme weather events. Additionally, children face changing exposures to toxic chemicals, worsening poverty, food and physical insecurity, and threats to their living environments (Sheffield & Landrigan, 2011) [37].

Children's unique vulnerabilities arise from their developing organ systems, greater exposure to environmental contaminants relative to their body weight, and their dependence on caregivers for safety and health. The health impacts of climate change on children encompass physical and psychological sequelae from weather disasters, increased heat stress, diminished air quality, altered disease patterns of climate-sensitive infections, and food, water, and nutrient insecurity, particularly in regions already facing socioeconomic challenges (Ahdoot & Pacheco, 2015) [38].

Moreover, the psychosocial effects of climate change are gaining recognition, as children may experience anxiety and stress related to climate-related disasters and the broader implications of environmental instability. This mental health burden is compounded by social factors such as living in low-wealth households and experiencing discrimination, which further heightens their risk of adverse health outcomes (Reichelt et al., 2025) [20].

The urgency of addressing these health impacts is underscored by the need for comprehensive climate change preparedness strategies, which should be integrated into public health programs. Such strategies include reducing greenhouse gas emissions and implementing public health interventions to mitigate the health impacts of climate change on children (Fernandez et al., 2025) [2].

In conclusion, the health implications of climate change for children are profound and multifaceted, necessitating immediate action to protect this vulnerable population from worsening health outcomes and to ensure equitable health access in the face of environmental challenges. The intersection of climate change and child health represents a critical area for research, policy development, and public health intervention, emphasizing the need for collaborative efforts across sectors to address these pressing issues effectively.

4.3 Health Disparities in Low-Income Communities ​

Climate change represents a significant and multifaceted threat to human health, particularly affecting vulnerable populations, including those in low-income communities. The consequences of climate change are not uniformly distributed; rather, they exacerbate existing health disparities and inequities.

Low-income populations are disproportionately affected by the environmental and health consequences of climate change. These communities often face heightened exposure to climate-related hazards such as extreme weather events, air pollution, and food and water insecurity. For instance, increased temperatures and severe weather can lead to health issues such as respiratory and heat-related illnesses, vector-borne diseases, and foodborne and waterborne diseases, which are more prevalent in these communities due to inadequate infrastructure and limited access to healthcare resources (Crowley 2016; Levy & Patz 2015).

The direct impacts of climate change include increased rates of respiratory disorders, heat-related illnesses, and mental health issues stemming from stress and trauma related to climate disasters. Vulnerable populations, including the elderly, children, and individuals with pre-existing health conditions, face the highest risks due to their increased susceptibility to these health impacts (Smirnova et al. 2023; Reichelt et al. 2025). Additionally, low-income communities often lack the resources necessary to adapt to changing conditions, making them more vulnerable to the health risks posed by climate change (McMichael 2014).

The intersection of climate change and health disparities is further compounded by social determinants of health, such as socioeconomic status, access to healthcare, and living conditions. For example, individuals in low-income areas may live in environments with poor air quality and inadequate sanitation, which are exacerbated by climate-related changes. These factors contribute to a cycle of disadvantage that can lead to increased morbidity and mortality rates within these communities (Bowen & Friel 2012).

Moreover, the implications of climate change extend beyond immediate health outcomes. The societal impacts include increased displacement due to natural disasters, which can lead to further marginalization of already vulnerable populations. As people are forced to migrate due to climate impacts, they may face additional barriers to healthcare access and social services, further entrenching health disparities (Roos et al. 2021; Wright et al. 2023).

In summary, climate change poses a profound threat to human health, particularly for vulnerable populations in low-income communities. The interplay of environmental factors, socioeconomic status, and systemic inequities creates a landscape where health disparities are not only exacerbated but also perpetuated. Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive strategies that prioritize health equity and the needs of the most affected populations to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on health.

5 Policy Implications and Recommendations ​

5.1 Integrated Climate and Health Policies ​

Climate change has profound implications for human health, influencing various health outcomes through both direct and indirect pathways. The health consequences of human-induced climate change are multifaceted, impacting food supply, natural disasters, infectious diseases, ecosystems, and sea level rise. As ecosystems are threatened, the concept of sustainable development has emerged as a guiding framework for policy-making since the 1980s, emphasizing the need for integrated approaches to address these challenges [39].

One significant aspect of climate change is its potential to exacerbate health problems, particularly among vulnerable populations such as the elderly, sick, or economically disadvantaged. Increased rates of respiratory and heat-related illnesses, heightened prevalence of vector-borne and waterborne diseases, food and water insecurity, and malnutrition are all potential effects of climate change on human health [1]. Moreover, the changing climate is associated with extreme weather events, which can lead to injuries, deaths, and other adverse health outcomes [40].

The interplay between climate change and health outcomes is complex, involving multiple exposure pathways that can promote the development of non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases. For instance, shifts in ambient temperature, air pollution, and extreme weather events are direct exposure pathways that have been linked to cardiovascular health issues [3]. Therefore, a collaborative approach among medical professionals, researchers, public health officials, and policymakers is crucial for mitigating the effects of climate change on health [3].

Addressing climate change presents an opportunity to improve human health significantly. The American College of Physicians advocates for healthcare professionals to engage in environmentally sustainable practices that reduce carbon emissions and educate the public about the health risks posed by climate change [1]. This involves redesigning medical school curricula to include climate science education, enabling future healthcare providers to recognize and respond to health conditions exacerbated by climate change [41].

An integrated assessment framework for climate change and infectious diseases is also essential. This framework can help identify indirect interactions or mechanisms influencing disease prevalence and inform targeted research across disciplines [42]. Additionally, empirical evidence suggests that proactive measures, such as improving the prediction of climate change impacts and establishing early warning systems, can enhance society's resilience to health threats posed by climate change [43].

In summary, the implications of climate change for human health are significant and warrant urgent action. Integrated climate and health policies should be developed to address these challenges comprehensively, emphasizing collaboration among various stakeholders, sustainable practices in healthcare, and education to mitigate health risks associated with climate change. The ongoing evolution of climate conditions necessitates a responsive and informed healthcare system that can adapt to the emerging health landscape shaped by climate change.

5.2 Community Resilience Strategies ​

Climate change exerts profound impacts on human health through various direct and indirect pathways, influencing the environmental and social determinants of health. The consequences are complex and multifaceted, necessitating comprehensive strategies for adaptation and resilience, particularly at the community level.

Direct health effects of climate change include increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, wildfires, floods, and storms. These events can lead to injuries, fatalities, and exacerbate pre-existing health conditions. For instance, individuals with respiratory conditions, such as asthma and allergies, are particularly vulnerable to climate-related changes in air quality and pollen levels, which can lead to increased exacerbations of their conditions [44]. Additionally, climate change contributes to the emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases, as shifting climate patterns alter the habitats and behaviors of vectors such as mosquitoes [45].

The indirect health impacts are equally concerning. Climate change affects food security, water supply, and the prevalence of mental health issues, particularly in vulnerable populations. Vulnerable groups, including those in low-income communities, are disproportionately affected due to their limited resources and adaptive capacity [46]. Furthermore, the health care system itself contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for 3% to 5% of global emissions, which highlights the need for the sector to not only mitigate its own impact but also advocate for broader climate actions [44].

In response to these challenges, policy implications and recommendations must focus on enhancing community resilience strategies. A collaborative approach involving health professionals, policymakers, and community stakeholders is essential. This includes integrating climate risks into health policy and decision-making, strengthening health system governance, and promoting community engagement in resilience-building activities [3].

Community-based adaptation strategies are critical. These strategies should involve proactive problem-solving processes that engage local stakeholders to enhance social capital and resilience against climate-related health risks [47]. This can include establishing early warning systems for extreme weather events, improving infrastructure to withstand climate impacts, and providing education on health risks associated with climate change.

Moreover, building climate-resilient health systems is paramount. This involves not only reducing the carbon footprint of health services but also ensuring that health systems are equipped to respond to climate-related health challenges. Public health measures must be implemented to protect populations from the range of climate risks, emphasizing the need for comprehensive health strategies that are context-specific and equitable [45].

In conclusion, the intersection of climate change and health requires urgent and coordinated action across various sectors. The health community has a unique role in advocating for policies that mitigate climate change while simultaneously addressing health inequities, thereby ensuring a healthier future for all populations.

5.3 Global Cooperation and Funding ​

Climate change poses significant threats to human health, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of its implications and the urgent need for coordinated global responses. The multifaceted relationship between climate change and health outcomes can be observed through various pathways, which highlight the necessity for policy implications and recommendations aimed at fostering global cooperation and securing funding.

The adverse health effects of climate change encompass a range of direct and indirect impacts. For instance, climate change contributes to higher rates of respiratory and heat-related illnesses, increased prevalence of vector-borne and waterborne diseases, food and water insecurity, and malnutrition. Vulnerable populations, including the elderly, the sick, and the economically disadvantaged, are particularly at risk from these health consequences [1]. Additionally, climate change is associated with extreme weather events, which can lead to injuries, fatalities, and mental health issues, thereby amplifying existing health disparities [40].

In response to these challenges, a collaborative approach involving various stakeholders—including medical professionals, scientific researchers, public health officials, and policymakers—is essential. Such collaboration is critical to develop and implement effective strategies for mitigating the health impacts of climate change. The need for multidisciplinary engagement is underscored by the complexity of the interactions between climate change and health outcomes, which require integrated solutions that address both upstream drivers (such as greenhouse gas emissions) and downstream effects (like health outcomes) [48].

Policy recommendations must focus on enhancing the capacity of health systems to adapt to the emerging challenges posed by climate change. This includes investing in public health infrastructure that can respond to climate-related health risks and implementing environmentally sustainable practices that reduce carbon emissions [1]. Furthermore, the American College of Physicians advocates for the healthcare community to engage in educating the public and lawmakers about the health risks associated with climate change, emphasizing the opportunity to improve health outcomes through proactive climate action [1].

Global cooperation is imperative for addressing the health impacts of climate change effectively. Financial support for adaptation activities is increasing from various international actors, such as the World Bank and the United Nations, which can help strengthen the response mechanisms in developing countries that are most affected by climate change [49]. The global health community must capitalize on this funding to enhance adaptation strategies that address community needs and vulnerabilities [49].

In conclusion, climate change significantly affects human health through various pathways, necessitating a coordinated response that includes policy development, global cooperation, and targeted funding. Engaging diverse stakeholders and prioritizing vulnerable populations will be crucial in mitigating the health impacts of climate change and fostering resilience in health systems worldwide [3][4].

6 Conclusion ​

The health impacts of climate change are profound and multifaceted, significantly affecting vulnerable populations, including the elderly, children, and low-income communities. The increasing frequency of heat-related illnesses, respiratory diseases, vector-borne diseases, and mental health issues underscores the urgent need for integrated health and climate policies. Current research highlights the disparities exacerbated by climate change, emphasizing the necessity for targeted interventions to protect those most at risk. Future research should focus on developing adaptive strategies that enhance community resilience, integrate mental health considerations, and address the socioeconomic factors that compound health vulnerabilities. Collaborative efforts among healthcare professionals, policymakers, and communities are essential to mitigate the adverse health effects of climate change and ensure equitable health outcomes for all populations.

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