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This report is written by MaltSci based on the latest literature and research findings

How does circadian rhythm regulate metabolism? ​

Abstract ​

Circadian rhythms are intrinsic biological processes that operate on a roughly 24-hour cycle, governing a wide array of physiological functions, including metabolism. The central circadian clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), synchronizes peripheral clocks throughout the body, ensuring metabolic processes align with environmental changes. Disruptions in these rhythms are increasingly linked to metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. This review provides a comprehensive overview of how circadian rhythms regulate metabolism, emphasizing the role of key regulatory proteins, including CLOCK, BMAL1, and REV-ERB, which govern the expression of genes involved in metabolic pathways. Additionally, we discuss the impact of circadian disruption caused by modern lifestyle factors, such as shift work and irregular eating patterns, on metabolic health. The findings suggest that maintaining circadian harmony is crucial for optimal metabolic function and that therapeutic strategies, including chronotherapy and time-restricted feeding, hold promise for improving metabolic health. Future research should continue to explore the intricate interplay between circadian rhythms and metabolism, paving the way for innovative interventions to combat metabolic diseases.

Outline ​

This report will discuss the following questions.

  • 1 Introduction
  • 2 Circadian Rhythms: An Overview
    • 2.1 Definition and Mechanisms of Circadian Rhythms
    • 2.2 The Role of Light in Circadian Regulation
  • 3 Molecular Mechanisms Linking Circadian Rhythms and Metabolism
    • 3.1 Central and Peripheral Clocks
    • 3.2 Key Regulatory Proteins and Their Functions
  • 4 Impact of Circadian Disruption on Metabolism
    • 4.1 Effects of Shift Work and Jet Lag
    • 4.2 Circadian Misalignment and Metabolic Disorders
  • 5 Therapeutic Implications and Future Directions
    • 5.1 Chronotherapy in Metabolic Diseases
    • 5.2 Potential Interventions to Restore Circadian Rhythm
  • 6 Summary

1 Introduction ​

Circadian rhythms are intrinsic biological processes that operate on a roughly 24-hour cycle, governing a wide array of physiological functions, including sleep-wake cycles, hormone secretion, and metabolism. These rhythms are primarily regulated by the central circadian clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, which synchronizes peripheral clocks found in various tissues throughout the body. This synchronization is crucial for maintaining homeostasis, as it allows organisms to adapt their physiological processes to the predictable changes in their environment, particularly the light-dark cycle. The importance of circadian rhythms in metabolic regulation has garnered increasing attention in recent years, with emerging evidence linking disruptions in these rhythms to various metabolic disorders, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases [1][2].

The significance of understanding the relationship between circadian rhythms and metabolism extends beyond basic biological inquiry; it holds substantial implications for public health and clinical practice. As modern lifestyles increasingly involve irregular sleep patterns, shift work, and misaligned eating habits, the prevalence of circadian rhythm disruptions has escalated, contributing to a growing epidemic of metabolic diseases [3][4]. Research has demonstrated that the circadian system plays a pivotal role in orchestrating metabolic processes by temporally separating opposing metabolic activities and anticipating feeding-fasting cycles, thereby enhancing metabolic efficiency [5][6]. Furthermore, disruptions in circadian rhythms can impair glucose tolerance, lipid metabolism, and overall energy homeostasis, underscoring the necessity of maintaining circadian harmony for optimal metabolic health [7][8].

Current research has elucidated several molecular mechanisms linking circadian rhythms to metabolic processes. Key regulatory proteins, such as CLOCK, BMAL1, and REV-ERB, are central to the transcriptional and translational feedback loops that govern the expression of genes involved in metabolism [6][9]. These proteins orchestrate the timing of metabolic pathways across different tissues, including the liver, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle [7][8]. Moreover, the interaction between the circadian clock and gut microbiota has emerged as a significant area of investigation, with studies indicating that microbial rhythms can influence host metabolism and vice versa [4][8].

This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of how circadian rhythms regulate metabolism. We will begin with an overview of circadian rhythms, including their definition and mechanisms, and the role of light in circadian regulation. Next, we will delve into the molecular mechanisms linking circadian rhythms to metabolic processes, examining the roles of central and peripheral clocks, as well as key regulatory proteins. Following this, we will discuss the impact of circadian disruption on metabolism, particularly focusing on the effects of shift work and jet lag, and the implications of circadian misalignment for metabolic disorders. Finally, we will explore therapeutic implications and future directions, including the potential for chronotherapy in metabolic diseases and interventions aimed at restoring circadian rhythms.

Understanding the intricate interplay between circadian rhythms and metabolism is not only vital for advancing our knowledge of basic biological processes but also for developing effective strategies to combat metabolic diseases. By elucidating the mechanisms through which circadian rhythms influence metabolism, this review will highlight the critical importance of maintaining circadian harmony for optimal metabolic health and pave the way for future research in this burgeoning field.

2 Circadian Rhythms: An Overview ​

2.1 Definition and Mechanisms of Circadian Rhythms ​

Circadian rhythms are intrinsic biological timekeeping systems that regulate a wide array of physiological and metabolic processes in living organisms, operating on an approximately 24-hour cycle. These rhythms are crucial for aligning metabolic functions with environmental changes, particularly the light-dark cycle. The circadian clock consists of central and peripheral components, with the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus serving as the master pacemaker that orchestrates molecular clock rhythms across various tissues.

The circadian clock regulates metabolism by controlling the rhythmic expression of key enzymes and transporters involved in metabolic pathways. For instance, studies have demonstrated that the circadian system influences glucose metabolism, insulin sensitivity, lipid levels, and energy expenditure, as well as appetite regulation. Notably, these metabolic processes exhibit daily rhythms, with peaks often occurring in the biological morning or around noon, indicating that earlier feeding times may enhance metabolic efficiency (Poggiogalle et al., 2018) [1].

Disruption of circadian rhythms can lead to metabolic disorders such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and hyperlipidemia. Circadian misalignment, which can result from factors like irregular sleep patterns, mistimed food intake, and exposure to artificial light, has been shown to impair metabolic health. For example, the misalignment of internal circadian clocks with external environmental cues can result in metabolic dysregulation, leading to conditions like insulin resistance and increased fat storage (Lin et al., 2025) [9].

The interplay between metabolism and circadian rhythms is bidirectional; while circadian rhythms regulate metabolic processes, metabolic states can also influence circadian clock function. Nutritional factors, particularly the timing of food intake, play a significant role in resetting peripheral circadian clocks, thereby affecting local metabolic processes. For instance, time-restricted feeding (TRF) has been identified as a strategy that reinforces circadian rhythms and ameliorates metabolic disorders without necessitating caloric restriction (Roth et al., 2023) [8].

At a molecular level, the circadian clock operates through transcriptional and translational feedback loops that govern the expression of clock genes and metabolic regulators. Disruption of these feedback loops can lead to altered metabolic rhythms and subsequent pathologies. Recent research highlights the potential for pharmacological and dietary interventions to restore circadian rhythm integrity, which may improve metabolic health and provide therapeutic avenues for managing metabolic diseases (Sato & Sato, 2023) [10].

In summary, the regulation of metabolism by circadian rhythms is a complex interplay involving the synchronization of metabolic processes with daily environmental changes. Understanding this relationship is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat metabolic disorders linked to circadian rhythm disruptions.

2.2 The Role of Light in Circadian Regulation ​

Circadian rhythms are intrinsic biological processes that cycle approximately every 24 hours, playing a critical role in regulating various physiological functions, including metabolism. The circadian clock is primarily governed by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus, which acts as the master pacemaker, synchronizing peripheral clocks distributed throughout the body. This hierarchical organization ensures that metabolic processes are aligned with the external environment, particularly the light-dark cycle, thereby optimizing energy utilization and homeostasis.

The circadian system orchestrates metabolism by establishing daily rhythms in glucose, lipid, and energy metabolism. Research indicates that the circadian clock regulates key metabolic processes, including glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and lipid metabolism. For instance, studies have shown that certain metabolic parameters exhibit diurnal variations, with peaks in glucose and insulin levels occurring in the morning, suggesting that earlier food intake is optimal for metabolic efficiency (Poggiogalle et al., 2018) [1].

Disruptions in circadian rhythms, often caused by irregular light exposure, sleep patterns, or feeding schedules, can lead to metabolic dysfunctions. These misalignments have been linked to various metabolic disorders, including obesity, type 2 diabetes, and hyperlipidemia. For example, misaligned circadian rhythms can impair metabolic health by disrupting the timing of metabolic processes, leading to increased risks of insulin resistance and altered lipid storage (Lin et al., 2025) [9].

The interplay between the circadian clock and metabolism is complex, involving transcriptional-translational feedback loops that regulate the expression of metabolic genes and enzymes. This regulation is essential for maintaining glycolipid homeostasis and ensuring that metabolic pathways are activated at appropriate times (Dong et al., 2025) [11]. Furthermore, the availability of metabolites and feeding behavior can influence circadian rhythms, indicating a bidirectional relationship between metabolism and the circadian clock (Sahar & Sassone-Corsi, 2012) [6].

In summary, the circadian rhythm regulates metabolism by synchronizing metabolic processes with daily environmental cues, primarily light, which helps optimize energy utilization and maintain metabolic health. Disruptions to this rhythmicity can lead to significant metabolic disorders, highlighting the importance of chronobiology in understanding and managing metabolic diseases.

3 Molecular Mechanisms Linking Circadian Rhythms and Metabolism ​

3.1 Central and Peripheral Clocks ​

Circadian rhythms play a pivotal role in regulating metabolism through a complex interplay between central and peripheral clocks. The central circadian clock, primarily located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, synchronizes various physiological processes in response to environmental cues, particularly light. This master clock sends signals to peripheral clocks, which are present in nearly all tissues and organs, to ensure that metabolic processes are aligned with the day-night cycle.

The coordination between central and peripheral clocks is essential for maintaining metabolic homeostasis. Disruption of this synchrony can lead to metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. For instance, the SCN orchestrates the timing of hormone release, including insulin and glucagon, which are critical for glucose metabolism. Peripheral clocks, on the other hand, are sensitive to feeding schedules and can modulate the expression of genes involved in metabolism, energy storage, and utilization. Nutritional cues, such as the timing and composition of food intake, can reset peripheral clocks, thereby influencing metabolic pathways and energy homeostasis[9][12].

At the molecular level, circadian regulation involves transcriptional-translational feedback loops that govern the rhythmic expression of key metabolic genes. Clock genes interact with various transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), which play significant roles in lipid metabolism and energy homeostasis. These interactions highlight the reciprocal relationship between circadian rhythms and metabolic processes, wherein metabolic states can also influence circadian clock function[13][14].

Recent studies have elucidated that peripheral clocks are capable of integrating metabolic signals, such as those from nutrients and hormones, to modulate gene expression in a tissue-specific manner. For example, the liver clock regulates the expression of genes involved in gluconeogenesis and lipid metabolism, ensuring that these processes occur at optimal times relative to food availability[15][16].

Moreover, disruptions in circadian rhythms can lead to metabolic dysregulation, as seen in conditions like metabolic syndrome, where the synchronization between central and peripheral clocks is impaired. This misalignment can exacerbate insulin resistance and lipid accumulation, contributing to obesity and related metabolic disorders[17][18].

In summary, the regulation of metabolism by circadian rhythms is a multifaceted process involving central and peripheral clocks that communicate and synchronize physiological functions. The intricate molecular mechanisms underlying these interactions are critical for maintaining metabolic health and preventing metabolic diseases. Further research into these pathways could provide insights into potential therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring circadian alignment and improving metabolic outcomes[19][20].

3.2 Key Regulatory Proteins and Their Functions ​

Circadian rhythms are intrinsic, approximately 24-hour cycles that regulate various physiological processes, including metabolism. The molecular mechanisms underlying circadian regulation of metabolism primarily involve a complex network of core clock genes and proteins that orchestrate rhythmic gene expression in response to environmental cues such as light and temperature. Central to this regulatory framework are key proteins that form feedback loops to maintain the circadian cycle.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain acts as the master clock, synchronizing with environmental signals to coordinate daily rhythms in metabolism. The SCN regulates peripheral clocks located in various tissues, including the liver, adipose tissue, and muscle, which are essential for maintaining metabolic homeostasis. Core circadian clock proteins, such as CLOCK, BMAL1, PER, and CRY, play critical roles in this process. CLOCK and BMAL1 function as transcriptional activators, initiating the expression of target genes involved in metabolic pathways, while PER and CRY act as repressors that inhibit their own transcription, thus completing the feedback loop essential for maintaining rhythmicity [21].

Circadian rhythms regulate lipid metabolism by controlling the expression of numerous genes involved in lipid biosynthesis and fatty acid oxidation. In peripheral tissues, hundreds of genes are rhythmically activated and repressed by clock proteins, ensuring proper lipid metabolism. Disruption of clock gene function can lead to abnormal metabolic phenotypes, such as impaired lipid absorption and dysregulated lipid metabolism, which are associated with various metabolic disorders [22].

Additionally, the timing of food intake significantly influences circadian regulation of metabolism. Studies indicate that consuming food during the biological night can lead to metabolic dysregulation, while aligning meal times with the body's circadian rhythms can enhance metabolic efficiency [2]. This synchronization between the circadian clock and feeding behavior is crucial for optimizing metabolic processes and preventing conditions such as obesity and type 2 diabetes [1].

Recent findings also highlight the role of nuclear receptors, such as Rev-erbα and RORα, which integrate circadian rhythms with metabolic regulation. These receptors are involved in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism, and their dysregulation can contribute to metabolic disorders [23]. Furthermore, circadian misalignment caused by environmental factors, such as irregular sleep patterns and mistimed food intake, has been shown to adversely affect metabolic health [24].

In summary, the regulation of metabolism by circadian rhythms involves a sophisticated interplay of core clock proteins and nuclear receptors that modulate gene expression in response to environmental cues. This intricate regulatory network ensures that metabolic processes are optimized according to the time of day, highlighting the importance of maintaining circadian rhythm alignment for metabolic health.

4 Impact of Circadian Disruption on Metabolism ​

4.1 Effects of Shift Work and Jet Lag ​

Circadian rhythms, which are approximately 24-hour cycles, play a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes, including metabolism. These rhythms are driven by an endogenous clock that aligns bodily functions with environmental cues, such as light and darkness. The circadian system orchestrates metabolic processes by temporally separating opposing metabolic functions and anticipating recurring feeding-fasting cycles, thus enhancing metabolic efficiency [1].

Disruption of circadian rhythms can lead to significant metabolic disturbances. For instance, individuals exposed to shift work or jet lag often experience misalignment between their internal biological clock and external environmental signals. This misalignment has been associated with adverse metabolic outcomes, including obesity, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular diseases [[pmid:33235354],[pmid:29405095]]. The negative effects of circadian disruption are particularly evident in individuals who engage in night shifts, as their eating and activity patterns are often out of sync with their biological predispositions, leading to poor metabolic health [25].

Recent studies have highlighted that the timing of food intake is critical for metabolic regulation. Eating at times when the body is not prepared can lead to dysregulation of glucose and lipid metabolism, exacerbating the risk of metabolic diseases [26]. For example, the synchronization of meal timing with the circadian clock is essential for maintaining metabolic homeostasis; disruptions in this synchronization can impair appetite regulation and lead to obesity [2].

Furthermore, shift work has been shown to potentiate the effects of high-fat diets on inflammation and metabolism. Research indicates that chronic alterations in the light-dark cycle can disrupt the photoentrainment of circadian behaviors, modulate clock gene rhythms in tissues, and amplify the inflammatory response in adipose tissue. This inflammatory activation is linked to increased insulin resistance and glucose intolerance, highlighting the interplay between circadian disruption and metabolic dysregulation [27].

In summary, circadian rhythms regulate metabolism through a complex interplay of hormonal and behavioral mechanisms that align physiological processes with environmental cues. Disruption of these rhythms, particularly due to shift work and jet lag, can lead to significant metabolic disturbances, emphasizing the importance of maintaining a regular schedule for eating and activity to support metabolic health.

4.2 Circadian Misalignment and Metabolic Disorders ​

Circadian rhythms play a critical role in regulating various metabolic processes within the body. These endogenous rhythms, which cycle approximately every 24 hours, are essential for synchronizing physiological functions with environmental cues such as light and feeding patterns. The intricate relationship between circadian rhythms and metabolism is underscored by the observation that disruptions in these rhythms can lead to significant metabolic disorders, including obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.

The circadian system orchestrates metabolism by timing the expression of metabolic genes, hormone secretion, and overall energy expenditure. This system helps to temporally separate opposing metabolic processes, thus enhancing metabolic efficiency during specific times of the day. For instance, studies have shown that glucose metabolism, insulin sensitivity, and lipid metabolism exhibit distinct circadian rhythms, with many of these processes peaking during the biological morning or around noon, suggesting that earlier feeding times may be more beneficial for metabolic health [1].

Disruption of circadian rhythms—referred to as circadian misalignment—can occur due to various factors, including shift work, irregular sleep patterns, and inconsistent eating schedules. Such misalignment has been linked to impaired glucose metabolism and increased risk of type 2 diabetes. The underlying mechanisms involve alterations in the timing of hormone release, such as insulin, and changes in metabolic pathways that are crucial for maintaining homeostasis [28].

Furthermore, circadian disruption can lead to systemic low-grade inflammation, particularly in adipose tissues, which is associated with metabolic dysfunction. This inflammatory response is thought to be exacerbated by the misalignment of circadian clocks and is a significant contributor to the development of metabolic syndrome [29]. The genetic disruption of circadian clocks in animal models has revealed that such disturbances can lead to metabolic dysregulation that mirrors the effects seen in human populations experiencing chronic circadian misalignment [30].

Research has also highlighted the role of the gut microbiota in mediating the effects of circadian rhythms on metabolism. The interaction between the host's circadian clock and microbial rhythms can influence metabolic functions, suggesting a bidirectional relationship that affects both host and microbial health [4]. This connection emphasizes the importance of maintaining circadian health for optimal metabolic function.

In summary, circadian rhythms regulate metabolism by coordinating the timing of metabolic processes and hormonal activities. Disruptions to these rhythms can lead to metabolic disorders, highlighting the need for strategies aimed at restoring circadian alignment, such as optimizing light exposure, sleep, and meal timing, to improve metabolic health [31]. Understanding the complex interplay between circadian biology and metabolism is essential for developing novel therapeutic approaches to prevent and treat metabolic diseases.

5 Therapeutic Implications and Future Directions ​

5.1 Chronotherapy in Metabolic Diseases ​

Circadian rhythms are fundamental biological processes that exhibit approximately 24-hour cycles, influencing various physiological functions, including metabolism. The intricate relationship between circadian rhythms and metabolic regulation is mediated through molecular mechanisms that involve the expression of metabolic genes and the coordination of hormonal signals, which together optimize metabolic functions at specific times of the day.

Circadian rhythms regulate metabolism by influencing key metabolic pathways and processes, such as glucose homeostasis, lipid metabolism, and energy expenditure. For instance, the circadian clock governs the rhythmic expression of enzymes and transporters involved in glycolipid metabolism, ensuring homeostasis in response to daily environmental changes. Disruption of these rhythms can lead to metabolic disorders characterized by altered glucose utilization, insulin sensitivity, and lipid storage, which are critical factors in the development of conditions such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases (Lin et al., 2025; Kubo, 2020; Roth et al., 2023).

Therapeutic implications of circadian biology are increasingly recognized, particularly in the context of chronotherapy—an approach that aligns treatment timing with the body’s biological clock to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Interventions such as time-restricted feeding (TRF) have shown promise in improving metabolic health markers by aligning food intake with the circadian clock. TRF involves limiting the feeding window to specific hours of the day, which has been associated with improvements in body weight, glucose tolerance, and reductions in inflammation (Charlot et al., 2021; Roth et al., 2023).

Moreover, understanding the molecular mechanisms linking circadian regulation to metabolic processes may lead to precision medicine approaches tailored to individual circadian profiles. For example, therapeutic strategies that target the synchronization of circadian rhythms through dietary modifications or pharmacological interventions could be developed to mitigate the effects of circadian disruption on metabolism (Dollet et al., 2021; Sahar & Sassone-Corsi, 2012).

Future directions in this field should focus on elucidating the complex interactions between circadian rhythms and metabolic pathways. This includes investigating the role of specific circadian regulators, such as NFIL3, in modulating metabolic responses and the potential for these regulators to serve as therapeutic targets for metabolic diseases (Kubo, 2020). Additionally, exploring the impact of lifestyle factors, such as light exposure, physical activity, and meal timing, on circadian health will be crucial in developing effective strategies for the prevention and management of metabolic disorders (Knutson et al., 2025).

In summary, circadian rhythms play a critical role in regulating metabolism through the temporal control of metabolic processes. The emerging field of chronotherapy offers promising avenues for therapeutic interventions aimed at restoring circadian alignment and improving metabolic health, thereby addressing the growing prevalence of metabolic diseases in modern society. Continued research into the molecular underpinnings of circadian biology will enhance our understanding of these mechanisms and inform future therapeutic strategies.

5.2 Potential Interventions to Restore Circadian Rhythm ​

Circadian rhythms are intrinsic biological processes that operate on a roughly 24-hour cycle, regulating various physiological functions, including metabolism. The regulation of metabolism by circadian rhythms is complex and involves the orchestration of various metabolic pathways, influenced by the timing of food intake, hormonal fluctuations, and environmental cues.

Circadian clocks, both central and peripheral, synchronize metabolic processes to the light-dark cycle, ensuring that physiological functions occur at optimal times. This synchronization is crucial for maintaining metabolic homeostasis, as disruptions to circadian rhythms can lead to metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. For instance, the circadian clock influences the rhythmic expression of key enzymes and transporters involved in glycolipid metabolism, thereby impacting glucose utilization, insulin sensitivity, and lipid storage [9].

Recent studies have highlighted the role of circadian clock genes in modulating liver metabolism and the progression of liver diseases. Key regulators such as CLOCK, BMAL1, and their downstream effectors coordinate lipid and glucose metabolism, bile acid synthesis, and inflammatory responses. Disruption of these rhythms is linked to various liver conditions, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma [32]. Furthermore, misaligned metabolic rhythms have been shown to contribute to cancer initiation and progression, suggesting that restoring metabolic rhythm balance may serve as a therapeutic strategy [33].

Therapeutic implications of circadian regulation in metabolism are gaining attention, particularly in the context of chronotherapy and lifestyle interventions. Time-restricted feeding (TRF) has emerged as a promising approach to realign feeding patterns with the circadian clock, potentially improving metabolic health. TRF restricts the eating window to specific hours of the day, thereby reinforcing feeding-fasting rhythms and optimizing metabolic function [8]. This approach has demonstrated benefits in reducing obesity and associated metabolic dysfunctions by enhancing insulin sensitivity and reducing inflammation [26].

Emerging therapeutic strategies also include pharmacological interventions that target circadian clock components. However, the current landscape reveals a scarcity of effective pharmacological agents aimed specifically at the circadian clock [34]. Future research should focus on identifying natural products that can modulate circadian rhythms and exploring their potential in preventing and treating metabolic diseases [35].

In conclusion, the interplay between circadian rhythms and metabolism presents significant opportunities for therapeutic interventions. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying circadian regulation of metabolism will pave the way for precision medicine approaches tailored to individual circadian profiles. Further elucidation of these mechanisms, alongside the development of chronotherapeutic strategies, holds promise for improving health outcomes related to metabolic disorders.

6 Conclusion ​

The regulation of metabolism by circadian rhythms is a multifaceted process that highlights the importance of synchronizing physiological functions with environmental cues. Key findings indicate that both central and peripheral circadian clocks play crucial roles in maintaining metabolic homeostasis, with disruptions leading to significant metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. Current research underscores the intricate molecular mechanisms involving core clock proteins and their feedback loops that govern metabolic gene expression. Furthermore, the bidirectional relationship between metabolism and circadian rhythms emphasizes the need for lifestyle interventions that promote circadian alignment. Future research directions should focus on elucidating the specific roles of circadian regulators in metabolic processes and exploring innovative therapeutic strategies, such as chronotherapy and time-restricted feeding, to restore circadian harmony and improve metabolic health outcomes. By advancing our understanding of circadian biology, we can develop targeted interventions that address the rising prevalence of metabolic diseases in modern society.

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